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ELEMENTARY 

AGRICULTURE 


HATCH  AND  HASELWOOD 


Row,  Peterson 


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University  of  California. 


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ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

WITH 

PRACTICAL  ARITHMETIC 


K.   L.   HATCH 


PRINCIPAL.   SCHOOL  OF   AGRICULTURE    AND  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 
WINJJECONNE.   WISCONSIN 


AND 


J    A.   HASELWOOD 

SUPERINTENDENT     OF     SCHOOLS.      JEFFERSON     COUNTY.      AND 
SENATOR  FROM  THE  23d  DISTRICT.   WISCONSIN 


CHICAGO 

ROW,  PETERSON  &  COMPANY 

ICO? 


GENERAL 


Copyrighted,  1905,  1906,  1907,  by 
K.  L.  Hatch 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


The  tables  used  in  this  book  are  taken  from  the 
pubhshed  reports  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  this  publica- 
tion. Only  averages  and  approximate  values  are 
given.  Conditions  vary  so  widely  that  accuracy  is 
impossible.  The  value  of  the  tables  lies  in  familiarity 
with  their  use  rather  than  in  the  numerical  results 
obtained  from  them.  We  extend  our  thanks  to  L. 
Lewellin  &  Sons,  Percheron  Breeders,  Waterloo,  and 
J.  W.  Martin,  Red  Polled  Breeder,  Richland  Center, 
Wis.  Grateful  acknowledgment  is  also  made  to  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  for  material  used  in  illustra- 
tion, and  to  the  friends  who  have  given  us  valuable  as- 
sistance and  suggestions.  H.  &  H. 


1  ()8237 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter.  Page. 

I.     THE  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS 9 

11.     THE  PLANT  AND  THE  WATER 18 

IIL     PLANT    FOODS    23 

IV.     SOIL     30 

V.     THE  SOIL  AND  THE  CROP 38 

VL     WEARING  OUT  THE  SOIL 44 

VIL     LEGUMES     49 

VIIL     TILLING  THE  SOIL    55 

IX.    DRAINING  THE   SOIL    63 

X.     THE  CROP  69 

XL     INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  THAT   INJURE  THE 

CROPS 76 

XIL     THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  WEEDS   86 

XIIL     THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM 90 

XIV.     FEEDING    THE    STOCK 98 

XV.     THE  THREE  C'S— COWS,  CORN  AND  CLOVER.  .112 

XVL     THE   DAIRY    118 

XVIL     POULTRY     129 

XVIIL     SPECIAL    CROPS    135 

XIX.     FARM    BUILDINGS    146 

XX.     FARM  ACCOUNTS    154 

XXL     FORESTRY     161 

XXn.     HOME  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS    168 

XXIIL.  SCHOOL    GARDENING    173 

XXrV.     HOME   GARDENING    177 

XXV.    BARN  PLAN  AND  VENTILATION   181 


PREFACE 

As  the  population  of  our  country  increases,  it  is 
fast  becoming  evident  that  two  things  must  be  done: 
poorer  soil  must  be  cultivated,  and  what  is  already 
under  cultivation  must  be  made  to  produce  more.  In 
either  case  more  thoughtful  methods  in  agriculture  are 
absolutely  essential.  The  farmer  of  to-morrow,  who 
is  to-day  the  farmer's  boy,  must  know  how  to  farm 
better  than  his  father  does.  In  order  to  do  this,  he 
must  acquire  a  .more  or  less  complete  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  on  which  agriculture  is  based. 

The  farmer  of  the  future  must  be  able  to  read  farm 
papers  understandingly,  or  better  still,  he  should  be 
trained  for  his  life  work  in  some  agricultural  school 
as  doctors,  lawyers  and  teachers  are  now  trained.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  give  to  the  farmer's 
child,  who  studies  it,  a  start  in  such  necessary  knowl- 
edge. The  language  used  is  plain  and  simple,  and 
may  be  readily  understood  by  any  bright  boy  or  girl 
of  twelve  years  of  age.  All  scientific  terms  are  defined 
in  a  simple  way  whenever  it  has  been  necessary  to 
introduce  them. 

Each  chapter  is  followed  by  a  set  of  practical  farm 
problems  to  be  used  as  exercises  for  the  arithmetic 
class.     These  problems  have  a  definite  relation  to  the 


subject  matter  which  they  follow,  as  well  as  a  close 
relation  to  farm  life.  Wherever  appropriate  at  the 
close  of  a  chapter  some  experimental  studies  are 
added.  It  is  believed  that  the  working  out  of  these  ex- 
ercises will  enable  the  farmer's  children  to  solve  ordi- 
nary practical  problems  arising  on  the  farm,  and  pre- 
pare for  the  more  complex  ones  of  experimental  agri- 
culture. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  careful  study  of  this  book  will 
lead  to  a  deeper  interest  in  farm  life,  and  to  a  more 
careful  and  systematic  study  of  the  soils,  crops,  feeds, 
fertilizers,  and  the  like,  by  the  children  in  the  rural 
schools  and  perhaps,  incidentally,  by  the  farmers 
themselves. 

It  is  a  wholesome  indication  of  the  trend  of  educa- 
tional thought,  that  the  legislatures  of  several  states 
have  made  compulsory  the  study  of  agriculture  in  the 
district  schools. 

We  trust  that  this  little  book,  by  combining  the 
subjects  of  arithmetic  and  agriculture,  will  be  of 
material  assistance  to  teachers  in  their  efforts  to  do 
effective  work  in  both  branches. 

H.  &  H. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS 

What  Makes  Plants  Grow. — If  you  were  asked, 
"What  makes  a  pig  grow?"  you  would  reply,  "Milk, 
grass,  corn,  etc.,"  but  if  you  were  asked,  "What  makes 
a  plant  grow?"  would  you  answer  so  readily,  "The 
food  which  it  consumes?"  But  this  is  precisely  what 
you  should  reply.  Plants,  like  animals,  must  have 
food  and  drink,  and  like  animals,  they  perish  without 
them.  At  some  later  time,  we  shall  tell  you  what 
these  foods  are,  in  such  a  way  that  you  will  readily 
recognize  them  at  sight.  For  the  present,  however, 
we  shall  observe  the  way  in  which  plants  grow  and 
find  out,  if  possible,  the  source  from  which  they  get 
their  first  food. 

The  little  pig,  or  lamb,  or  calf  lives  and  grows  upon 
the  milk  of  its  mother  until  it  is  large  enough  to 
search  for  its  own  food.  It  then  begins  to  use  the 
same  food  as  the  larger  animals  of  its  kind.  Now, 
from  what  source  does  the  little  plant  get  its  first 
food? 


lO 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Hoiv  Plants  Store  Food. — If  you  will  carefully 
remove  the  skin  from  a  bean  that  has  been  soaked 
over  night,  and  then  separate  it  into  two  parts,  you 
will  discover  two  tiny  leaves  near  one  end,  between 
the  two  halves  of  the  bean.  Extending  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  is  a  tiny  stem  and  root.  This  little  plant 
is  called  the  germ  or  embryo,  and  it  is  this  germ  which 


A    BEAN    PLANT. 
A    DICOTYLEDON. 


SPLIT    BEAN. 
E — Embryo. 
:; — Cotyledon. 


A    CORN    PLANT. 

A     MONOCOTYLEDON 


later  develops  into  a  full  grown  plant.  The  two  halves 
of  the  bean  serve  as  a  storehouse  for  food,  and  are 
called  cotyledons.  If  a  kernel  of  corn  is  taken  instead, 
and  examined  in  the  same  way,  the  same  kind  of  little 
plant  will  be  found.  Instead  of  two  leaves  pointing 
upward,  as  in  the  bean,  but  one  will  be  found  in  the 
corn.  The  peanut  will  be  found  to  resemble  the  bean 
in  this  respect;  wheat  and  rye  resemble  the  corn. 


WHY  PLANTS  GROW  II 

Classification  of  Plants. — In  the  spring,  as  soon  as 
the  young  plants  begin  to  come  up,  go  out  into  the 
garden  and  field  and  notice  how  many  leaves  are  first 
seen  from  the  seed.  In  one  list  write  the  names  of  all 
plants  showing  but  a  single  leaf  or  sprout,  and  name 
that  list  monocotyledons.  In  another  list  write  the 
names  of  all  plants  showing  a  pair  of  first  leaves  and 
call  these  plants  dicotyledons,  and  you  will  have  begun 
the  systematic  study  of  botany.  If  you  are  interested, 
you  will  not  w^it  for  spring,  but  will  want  to  begin 
now,  which  you  may  do  by  planting  all  kinds  of  seeds 
grown  on  the  farm  in  sawdust  in  an  old  pan  kept 
in  a  light,  warm  place.  You  can  then  examine  these 
seeds  from  day  to  day  and  watch  their  growth. 

Germination. — If  you  keep  these  seeds  wet  they  will 
grow  well  for  a  few  days,  and  then  they  will  wither 
and  die.  Now,  why  is  this?  Because  the  little  plant- 
let  lives  on  the  food  contained  in  the  seed  until  this 
food  is  all  used  up,  and  the  plant  has  attained  sufficient 
size  and  strength  to  get  its  food  from  the  soil.  But  it 
cannot  get  sufficient  food  from  the  sawdust,  and  of 
course  it  starves  to  death,  just  as  a  little  pig  would 
starve  if  it  were  not  given  sufficient  food. 

Why  Plants  Store  Up  Food. — When  asked  why 
plants  store  up  so  much  food  matter  in  seeds  we 
usually  answer,  "To  furnish  food  for  animals  and 
men."  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth. 
Nature  intended  this  food  matter,  not  for  man,  but 
for  the  little  plantlets,  found  in  the  seeds,  to  use  for 
their  own  growth  until  they  are  large  enough  to  get  it 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


for  themselves  directly  from  the  soil.  Make  this 
experiment :  From  soaked  beans  or  kernels  of  corn, 
cut  away  about  two-thirds  of  this  food  matter,  being 

very  careful  not  to  injure  the 
embryos,  and  watch  the 
sprouting  of  what  remains. 
These  sprouts  will  wither 
and  die  much  sooner  than 
those  from  perfect  seeds,  be- 
cause not  enough  nourish- 
ment is  left  to  supply  them 
with  food  until  they  are 
large  enough  to  get  it  from, 
the  soil.  This  should  teach 
us  that  we  cannot  be  too 
careful  in  the  selection  of 
large,  well  developed  seeds 
if  we  wish  strong,  healthy 
plants  and,  consequently, 
good  crops. 

Every  farmer's  child  must  have  noticed  how  pota- 
toes shrivel  up  when  they  sprout  in  the  cellar.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  young  sprout  uses  up  a 
part  of  the  potato  as  food  for  its  own  growth. 

Necessity  of  Moisture,  Heat,  Air,  and  Light. — But 
there  are  other  things  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
plants.  Grain  rarely  grows  in  the  bin  or  stack,  and 
if  it  does,  you  will  say  that  it  is  because  the  grain 
is  too  wet.  Moisture,  then,  is  another  requisite  for 
plant  growth.  But  even  wet  grain  fails  to  grow  in 
the  winter  time  because  heat  is  necessary.     Neither 


Drawing  from  life,  show- 
ing effect  of  cutUng  away  a 
portion  of  the  cotyledons  on 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  The 
same  results  will  be  obtained 
by  using  small  and  large 
seeds.     Try   it. 


WHY  PLANTS  GROW  13 

will  crops  grow  in  ground  covered  with  water,  because 
all  growing  plants  must  have  air,  and  much  water 
keeps  the  air  out  of  the  soil.  There  is  still  another 
requisite  to  plant  growth,  and  that  is  light.  No  plant 
grows  well  in  dense  shade,  and  without  sunlight  plants 
always  have  a  yellow  and  sickly  appearance. 

Summary. — Good  seeds  and  proper  conditions  of 
soil,  moisture,  air,  heat  and  light  are  essential  to  plant 
growth,  and  a  part  of  the  study  of  agriculture  consists 
in  determining  just  how  to  control  these  conditions. 
**What?"  you  ask,  **Can  the  farmer  control  the  amount 
of  heat,  air  and  moisture  in  the  soil?"  He  can,  and 
it  is  the  purpose  of  this  little  book  to  teach  the  farmer's 
children  how  it  may  be  done. 

A  good  bulletin  on  the  subject  treated  in  this  chapter  may  be 
had  free  on  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  or  to  your  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress, 

Write  for  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  iii. — The  Farmer's  Interest 
in  Good  Seed. 

Experimental  Study  of  Seeds. 

1.  Place  a  folded  newspaper  in  the  bottom  of  a 
cigar  box,  a  crayon  box,  or  on  a  i)late;  moisten  with 
water,  and  place  another  folded  newspaper  over  the 
first  one.  Between  the  papers  place  one  hundred  of 
the  seeds  to  be  tested,  and  set  aside  in  a  warm  place 
for  a  few  days.  Keep  the  paper  moist  but  not  wet. 
At  the  end  of  a  week  the  number  of  sprouted  seeds 
represents  the  percentage  of  good  seeds. 

2.  Select  ten  very  small  seeds  and  an  equal  num- 
I  cT  of  very  large  seeds  of  the  same  kind,  and  plant 


14  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

them  at  equal  distances  in  parallel  rows  in  the  same 
box.  Note  which  make  the  most  rapid  and  vigorous 
growth  during  the  first  week;  the  second  week;  the 
third  week. 

3.  Select  seeds  from  a  supply  that  has  been  pre- 
viously tested  and  found  to  be  good.  Place  a  dozen 
of  these  seeds  on  paper  in  each  of  three  dishes.  Cover 
the  seeds  in  the  first  dish  with  water  and  keep  them 
completely  covered.  In  the  second  dish  keep  the  seeds 
half  covered  with  water.  In  the  third  dish  keep  the 
paper  on  which  the  seeds  are  placed  always  moist,  but 
do  not  allow  water  to  stand  around  the  seeds.  Which 
seeds  germinate  most  rapidly?  Why?  What  finally 
happens  to  the  seeds  immersed  in  water?    Explain. 

4.  Plant  some  seeds  in  moist  soil  and  others  in 
the  same  kind  of  soil  kept  very  wet.  Note  the  dif- 
ference in  germination  and  growth.     Explain. 

5.  Start  some  beans  growing  well  in  each  of  two 
boxes  side  by  side  on  the  window  sill ;  then  cover  one 
lot  with  another  box  or  a  paper  cone.  At  the  end  of 
a  week  remove  the  cover  and  note  the  effect  that 
absence  of  light  has  had  on  the  growth  and  appearance 
of  the  plants. 

6.  Provide  for  the  growth  of  seedlings  against 
glass.  This  may  be  done  by  planting  seeds  in  a  glass 
jar,  a  tumbler,  or  even  in  an  old  crayon  box  set  on 
end,  the  other  end  removed,  and  a  piece  of  glass  put. 
in  the  place  of  the  cover.  By  pressing  the  seeds  close 
against  the  glass  their  germination  and  growth  can 
be  easily  observed  from  day  to  day. 


WHY  PLANTS  GROW  15 

Table  I. 

Table  showing  legal  weight  per  bushel  of  farm  products  in 
the  majority  of  states: 

Wheat 60  lbs. 

Potatoes  60  lbs. 

Peas    60  lbs. 

Beans   60  lbs. 

Root  crops  (average) 60  lbs. 

Onions   57  lbs. 

Corn  (shelled)    56  lbs. 

Rye  56  lbs. 

Barley 48  lbs. 

Buckwheat    48  lbs. 

Oats 32  lbs. 

Handy  Values. 

A  bushel  requires  about   i]4  cubic  feet  of  space. 

A  bushel  of  corn  in  the  ear  requires  about  2  cubic  feet  of  space. 

A  barrel  of  water  requires  about  4  cubic  feet  of  space. 

A  ton  of  hay  fills  about  512  cubic  feet  of  space,  or  8x8x8  cubic 
feet. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62J/2  pounds. 

Note  I :     All  the  above  should  be  memorized. 

Note  II :  Pupils  should  also  memorize  tables  of  avoirdupois 
weight,  dry  measure,  liquid  measure,  long  measure,  square 
measure,  and  cubic  measure,  with  all  the  necessary  abbreviations. 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  wheat  are  grown  on  an 
acre  yielding  25  bushels? 

2.  How  many  pounds  are  grown  on  eight  acres  at 
the  same  rate?    How  many  tons? 

3.  How  many  square  rods  in  an  acre  ?  How  many 
pounds  would  that  be  per  square  rod  ? 


i6  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

4.  What  is  the  value  per  acre  of  the  above  at 
80c  per  bushel? 

5.  At  the  same  rate  what  is  the  value  of  all  the 
wheat  grown  on  a  piece  of  land  containing  240  square 
rods? 

6.  At  90c  per  bushel  what  is  the  value  of  the  wheat 
grown  on  an  acre  if  the  yield  is  20  bushels? 

7.  Which  is  the  more  valuable,  the  crop  in  problem 
4  or  that  in  problem  6? 

8.  If  20  bushels  of  90c  wheat  can  be  grown  on 
an  acre,  how  many  pounds  is  that  per  acre?  What 
is  the  price  per  pound  ?  How  many  pounds  are  grown 
on  a  square  rod?  What  is  the  value  of  the  wheat 
grown  on  a  square  rod? 

9.  At  the  same  rate  and  price,  what  is  the  value 
of  the  wheat  grown  on  a  piece  of  ground  14  rods  wide 
and  20  rods  long  ? 

10.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  40  rods  long  and 
24  rods  wide? 

11.  If  a  man  can  plow  2  acres  per  day,  how  long 
will  it  take  him  to  plow  the  above  field?  What  will 
it  cost  at  $2  per  day? 

12.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  plowing  a  40  acre 
field  at  the  same  rate? 

13.  If  a  man  and  team  can  seed  8  acres  per  day 
how  long  will  it  take  to  seed  a  40  acre  field?  What 
will  it  cost  at  $2  per  day? 

14.  At  50c  per  acre  w^hat  will  be  the  cost  of  cut- 
ting this  crop? 


WHY  PLANTS  GROW  17 

15.  It  will  cost  about  $0.25  per  acre  to  stack  the 
grain.     Find  the  cost  of  stacking. 

16.  What  is  the  threshing  bill  at  2  cents  per 
bushel?     Find  the  entire  cost  of  the  crop. 

17.  If  the  yield  has  been  20  bushels  per  acre, 
worth  90  cents  per  bushel,  how  much  has  the  farmer 
made  over  and  above  the  entire  cost  of  labor? 

18.  How  much  has  he  made  if  the  crop  has  yielded 
25  bushels  per  acre,  worth  $0.80  per  bushel  ? 

19.  Have  any  items  of  the  cost  of  producing  this 
wheat  been  omitted?  If  so,  what?  Should  we  allow 
for  them?    Let  us  do  so  and  find  the  result. 

20.  With  a  crop  of  50  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per 
acre,  worth  $0.40  per  bushel,  work  the  same  series  of 
problems,  omitting  such  as  do  not  apply  to  corn 
raising. 

To  the  Teacher:  The  above  list  of  problems  is  intended  to 
suggest  others.  Ask  the  pupils  to  find  the  current  prices  of  corn, 
oats,  barley,  hay,  etc.  What  is  considered  a  good  crop  per  acre 
of  each  of  these?  Then  estimate  the  cost  of  labor.  Have 
them  furnish  all  the  necessary  data.  This  they  can  get  from 
home.  Make  up  a  list  of  problems  similar  to  the  above  from 
data  furnished  by  the  pupils.  Let  one  pupil  furnish  data  for  one 
set  of  problems,  another  pupil  furnish  data  for  another  set,  and 
so  on.  Pass  the  honors  around.  You  should  have  both  parents 
and  pupils  interested  before  you  have  progressed  far  with  this 
work.  Observe  this  policy  throughout  the  course  of  instruction 
in  this  branch.  It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  logical  order 
in  arrangement  of  the  problems ;  in  many  cases  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  are  found  in  one  preced- 
ing it. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER 


Kinds  of  Plant  Foods. — We  have  already  seen  that; 
the  seed  furnishes  the  food  for  the  Httle  plantlet  until 
it  is  large  enough  to  get  food  from  the  soil,  in  much 
the  same  way  that  the  mother  cow  furnishes  milk  for 
her  calf  until  the  calf  is  large  enough  to  find  its  own 
food.  If  asked,  ''What  are  the  foods  which  a  cow 
eats?"  you  would  probably  answer,  "Grass,  hay,  straw, 
oats,  bran,  etc."  Not  many  of  us  could  answer 
so  readily  if  asked  to  give  a  list  of  plant  foods.  There 
are  but  a  dozen  of  them,  and  half  of  these  are  nearly 
as  well  known  to  you  as  cattle  foods.  The  most 
familiar  are :  water,  lime,  iron-rust,  soda,  ammonia 
and  sand.  The  other  six  are :  magnesia,  potash  and 
four  acids,  viz. :  carbonic,  phosphoric,  hydrochloric 
and  sulphuric. 

Plants  and  Water. — Now  let  us  consider  these  plant 
foods.  Every  one  knows  that  plants  cannot  live  with- 
out w^ater,  but  few  persons  stop  to  think  of  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  water  consumed  daily  by  an  acre  of 
growing  vegetation.  You  may  make  this  experiment : 
Put  exactly  the  same  amount  of  water  in  each  of  two 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  WATER 


19 


similar  vessels — tumblers,  glass  fruit-jars  or  even  old 
tin  cans  will  answer.  Pull  up  a  thrifty  bunch  of  clover 
and  put  its  roots  into  one  of  these  vessels  of  water. 
Stand  both  on  a  table  or  shelf  side  by  side.  In  a  few 
days  you  will  notice  that  the  water  in  the  vessel 
containing  the  clover  is  disappearing  much  more  rap- 
idly than  that  in  the  other  vessel.  As  soon  as  the 
clover  begins  to  wilt  take  it  out  of  the  water  and  by 


Relative  amounts  of 
water  at  the  beginniDg  of 
the  experiment. 


Relative  amounts  of 
water  at  the  end  of  the 
experiment. 


measuring  compare  what  remains  in  the  two  vessels. 
Of  course,  both  have  lost  by  evaporation — that  is,  both 
have  ''dried  up,*'  as  we  say — but,  if  the  vessels  are  of 
the  same  size,  there  should  be  equal  evaporation. 
Why,  then,  should  not  the  remainders  be  equal?  Be- 
cause the  clover  plant  has  been  using  up  water.  The 
difference  between  what  remains  in  the  two  cans  repre- 
sents the  amount  used  by  the  clover  plant. 

Hoiv  Plants  Use  Water. — Plants  make  use- of  water 
in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  they  use  it  as  food 
just  the  same  as  animals  do.  In  the  second  place,  a 
plant  cannot  eat  solid  food.  It  has  neither  mouth  nor 
teeth   and   it   must   suck   in   its   food    in   liquid   form 


20  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

through  its  roots.  The  soHd  foods  mentioned  above 
dissolve  in  water — just  as  sugar  dissolves  in  coffee — 
and  in  this  dissolved  condition  they  are  easily  taken  in 
by  the  roots  of  the  plant.  Substances  such  as  salt, 
that  dissolve  in  water,  are  said  to  be  soluable,  and  the 
plant  fluid  containing  these  dissolved  substances  is 
called  sap.  The  solid  food,  with  a  portion  of  the 
water,  is  taken  from  the  sap  to  be  used  in  plant  growth, 
and  the  remaining  water  is  passed  off  to  the  air 
through  little  holes  in  the  leaves.  This  is  the  reason 
why  plants  need  so  much  water.  Grain  uses  up 
thousands  of  tons  of  water  per  acre  during  the  grow- 
ing season. 

Moisture  Can  Be  Regulated. — But  you  ask :  ''Can 
the  farmer  regulate  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
soil?  Does  not  that  depend  wholly  upon  rainfall?" 
No,  it  does  not  depend  upon  rainfall.  If  the  ground 
is  too  wet,  the  farmer  can  drain  it  by  ditching  or  tiling, 
and  by  careful  cultivation  he  can  keep  the  moisture 
in  the  soil  in  times  of  drought.  Just  how  this  is  done 
is  left  for  later  discussion. 

Experimental  Study  of  Water  in  Plants. 

1.  Place  a  clean,  dry  glass  vessel  over  a  growing 
plant.  A  fruit- jar  or  a  tumbler  will  do.  In  a  few 
hours  what  appears  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass? 
Where  does  this  moisture  come  from?  How  can  you 
show  that  it  does  not  come  from  the  soil  ? 

2.  Place  a  thrifty  clover  plant  in  a  clean,  dry  glass 
jar  and  seal  it  tight.    In  a  few  hours  what  appears  on 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  WATER  21 

the  inner  surface  of  the  bottle?     Explain  what  you 
observe. 

3.  Place  some  cut  flowers  that  have  begun  to 
wither  in  a  vessel  containing  cold  water,  immersing 
all  except  the  blossoms.  Set  in  a  cool  place  for  several 
hours.    What  change  occurred?    Explain. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fanners'  Bulletins. 

No.    46. — Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates 

No.  116. — Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing. 

No.  138. — Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden. 

No.  158. — How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches. 

Table  11. 
Table  showing  proportions  of  water  in  farm  crops. 

One  bushel  of  root  crops  contains  about  55  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  potatoes  contains  about  45  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  corn  (dry,  shelled)  contains  about  5  pounds  of 
water. 

One  bushel  of  wheat  contains  about  6  pounds  of  water. 

One  bushel  of  oats  contains  about  3  pounds  of  water. 

One  ton  of  dry  hay  contains  about  300  pounds  of  water. 

One  ton  of  green  feed  contains  from  1,500  to  1,800  pounds  of 
water. 

Note:  This  represents  only  the  water  left  in  the  plants  and 
seeds  as  a  part  of  them.  By  far  the  greater  amount  used  by  the 
plant  passes  off  to  the  air  through  the  pores  in  the  leaves. 

Problems. 

I.     If  rain    falls  an  inch  deep  on  the  level,  how 
many  cubic  inches  is  that  per  square  foot  ?    Per  square 


22  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

yard?     Per  square  rod?     How  many  cubic  feet  per 
square  rod?    Per  acre? 

2.  About  how  many  barrels  of  water  fall  on  an 
acre  with  i  inch  rainfall? 

3.  How  many  tons  will  this  water  weigh? 

4.  The  total  rainfall  during  the  year  in  Wisconsin 
is  about  four  feet.  What  does  the  water  weigh  that 
falls  during  the  year  on  a  square  yard  of  ground  ?  On 
a  square  rod  ?    How  many  tons  to  the  acre  ? 

5.  Suppose  the  plants  use  one-eighth  of  this,  what 
is  the  weight  of  the  water  used  by  a  square  yard  of 
vegetation?    A  square  rod?    An  acre? 

6.  Suppose  potatoes  contain  three-fourths  of  their 
weight  of  water.  How  many  pounds  of  water  in  a 
bushel  of  potatoes  ? 

7.  If  150  bushels  per  acre  of  potatoes  is  a  good 
yield,  how  many  pounds  of  water  in  the  potatoes 
grown  on  an  acre  ? 

8.  By  the  aid  of  data  furnished  by  the  members 
of  the  class  make  and  solve  at  least  ten  other  similar 
problems. 


CHAPTER  III 


PLANT  FOODS 


Lime. — Lime  is  known  to  every  child.  It  is  known, 
too,  that  hme  will  dissolve  readily  in  water,  and  thus 
become  available  for  plant  food.  Large  quantities  of 
lime  are  found  in  the  soil.  Of  course,  it  comes  from 
the  lime  rock. 

Soda. — Soda,  or  saleratus,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  also  easily  dissolved  in  water.  Soda  is  made  from 
common  salt  and  the  plants  get  it  from  the  soil. 

Iron-Rust. — Iron-rust  gives  the  red  or  yellow  color 
to  rocks  and  soils.  It  dissolves  easily  in  water,  espe- 
cially after  a  little  acid  is  added. 

The  Use  of  Acids. — But  what  is  an  acid?  The 
commonest  kind  of  acid,  without  which  no  farmer's 
wife  could  well  get  along,  is  vinegar.  .  Acids  are 
usually  sour  in  taste,  and  their  presence  in  the  soil  as- 
sists water  in  dissolving  rock.  A  copper  penny  can  be 
made  bright,  or  an  old  brass  ring  to  look  like  gold, 
by  rubbing  it  with  a  little  vinegar.  This  is  because 
the  acid  dissolves  off  the  tarnish  and  leaves  the  clean 
surface  exposed.  Some  of  the  plant  foods  dissolve 
much  more  readily  in  water  to  which  a  little  acid  has 
been  added.     Soda  is  a  good  example.     Put  a  tea- 


24  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

spoonful  of  it  in  a  cup  about  one-fourth  full  of  water 
without  stirring.  Add  a  little  vinegar  and  notice  what 
takes  place.  The  soda  disappears  because  the  acid 
acts  on  it.  Gas  is  given  off  very  rapidly,  causing  it 
to  bubble  and  *'foam."  This  gas  is  carbonic  acid, 
one  of  the  four  acids  named  in  the  last  chapter.  These 
acids  help  the  water  to  dissolve  the  plant  foods  in  the 
soil  and  are  themselves  taken  in  as  plant  foods. 

Sand. — Sand  needs  no  discussion.  By  some  it  is 
believed  to  be  the  food  that  gives  stiffness  to  the  stalks 
of  barley,  oats  and  other  grains,  which,  when  grown 
on  rich  bottom  land,  usually  ''lodge"  partly  because 
they  are  unable  to  get  sufficient  sand  from  the  soil. 

Ammonia. — Ammonia  is  known  by  its  odor.  It  is 
used  for  cleaning  clothing  and  windows.  If  you  go 
into  the  barn  on  a  warm  morning  when  the  barn  has 
been  closed  during  the  night  you  will  get  a  strong 
odor  of  ammonia  from  the  horse  manure.  Ammonia 
is  always  given  off  to  the  air  when  animal  matter 
decays.  It  contains  the  element,  nitrogen,  so  essential 
to  plant  growth. 

Carbonic  Acid. — Carbonic  acid  is  a  plant  food  and  it 
is  also  found  in  the  air.  You  will  remember  it  as  the 
gas  that  came  off  when  you  put  vinegar  on  soda.  This 
gas  is  always  given  off  to  the  air  when  vegetable  mat- 
ter burns  or  decays.  You  are  throwing  it  off  from 
your  lungs  with  every  breath  that  you  breathe.  So, 
too,  are  all  animals.  Here  is  a  simple  test  for  it  that 
any  child  can  easily  make.  Put  a  piece  of  fresh  lime  in 
some  water,  shake  well  and  let  it  stand  until  it  settles 


PLANT  FOODS  25 

and  the  water  is  perfectly  clear.  Pour  off  this  clear 
liquid  into  another  bottle.  This  clear  liquid  is  lime 
water.  Some  of  the  lime  has  been  dissolved.  Taste 
it  to  satisfy  yourself.  Now  pour  some  of  the  lime 
water  into  a  tumbler  and  with  a  straw  blow  bubbles 
through  it.  It  gets  milky  because  of  the  carbonic 
acid  in  your  lungs.  Now  mix  up  some  more  "soda 
water"  and  add  vinegar.  Carefully  tip  the  tumbler  so 
that  the  gas  can  run  into  the  lime  water.  It  is  heavier 
than  air  and  will  run  over  the  edge  of  the  tumbler 
like  water.  Shake  the  lime  water.  It  is  milky  again. 
This  shows  that  the  gas  given  off  by  the  soda  water 
when  vinegar  is  added  is  the  same  as  the  gas  given  off 
by  your  lungs.     Make  one  more  experiment: 

Place  a  little  lime  water  in  a  saucer  and  set  this  on 
the  floor  in  your  sleeping  room  over  night.  In  the 
morning  it,  too,  will  be  found  to  be  milky.  This  shows 
the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air. 

Magnesia. — Magnesia  is  known  to  most  of  us.  It  is 
the  white  powder  used  to  whiten  the  skin  and  prevent 
soreness  from  the  wind. 

Potash. — Potash  is  found  in  wood  ashes  and  gives 
to  lye,  made  therefrom,  its  soapy  feel. 

Sources  of  Plant  Foods. — The  water,  soil  and  air 
are  the  sources  of  plant  foods.  The  air  contains  two 
— ammonia  and  carbonic  acid — soil  and  water  the 
other  nine.  All  of  these  foods  except  carbonic  acid 
dissolve  in  water  and  enter  the  plant  by  its  roots. 
Carbonic  acid  is  taken  in  directly  from  the  air  by  the 
plant  through  the  little  holes  in  the  leaves. 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


26  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Plant  Starvation. — Now,  if  these  foods  are  not 
found  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  soil,  the  plant  grows 
slowly  and  finally  dies.  Again,  the  soil  may  contain 
plenty  of  plant  food,  but  it  may  not  be  in  a  form  read- 
ily soluble  by  the  water,  and  the  plant  suffers  from  a 
lack  of  food,  just  as  one  may  starve  within  ten  feet  of 
plenty  of  food  that  is  securely  locked  up  so  that  he  can 
not  get  at  it.  One  problem  which  the  farmer  is  called 
upon  to  solve  is,  how  to  make  the  soil  of  his  farm 
more  easily  soluble. 

Eifect  of  Too  Much  Food. — Plants  may  be  killed 
by  too  much  food.  Who  has  not  seen  spots  of  grass 
killed  out  where  the  cattle  have  been  salted  or  have 
dropped  manure?  This  is  because  the  plants  have 
taken  in  too  much  solid  food.  Plants  can  live  on  so 
small  an  amount  as  one  part  of  solid  food  dissolved  in 
a  million  parts  of  water,  and  more  than  one  part  in  a 
thousand  kills  them.  One  way  to  kill  noxious  weeds 
is  to  cover  them  with  salt,  lime,  or  ashes,  so  that  they 
will  get  more  than  one  part  of  this  food  in  every  thou- 
sand parts  of  water  that  they  use. 

Soil  Exhaustion. — From  what  we  have  learned  it 
is  clear  that,  if  the  farmer  raises  grain  on  his  farm  to 
sell,  and  never  returns  manure  to  the  soil,  he  will  rob 
it  of  its  plant  food,  and  it  will  soon  begin  to  show 
evidence  of  being  *'worn  out."  Plant  foods  are  being 
continually  used  up  by  the  growing  plants,  and  re- 
moved with  them,  and  none  are  returned  to  take  their 
place.     The  heavier  the  crop  the  greater  will  be  the 


PLANT  FOODS  27 

loss.     Tobacco  and  root  crops,  being  so  much  heavier, 
exhaust  the  soil  faster  than  small  grains. 

But  worn-out  soil  does  not  mean  soil  in  which  all 
the  different  kinds  of  plant  foods  are  used  up.  In 
fact,  soil  usually  contains  all  plant  foods  in  inexhaust- 
ible quantities  with  but  three  exceptions,  namely: 
potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  the  nitrogen  found  in 
ammonia.  To  restore  the  fertility  of  the  soil  means 
only  to  restore  these  three  substances.  The  general 
rule  for  fertilizing  soils  will  be  taken  up  later. 

Experimental  Study  of  Plant  Foods. 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  the  following  plant  foods: 
Lime,  iron-rust,  soda,  ammonia,  magnesia,  acid,  sul- 
phur, and  sand.  Place  each  specimen  in  a  small  bottle 
and  label  properly. 

2.  Potash  may  be  easily  prepared  from  wood 
ashes.  Place  about  two  quarts  of  wood  ashes  in  a  pan, 
cover  with  water,  and  let  stand  for  a  few  hours,  stir- 
ring frequently.  Then  allow  the  ashes  to  settle  and 
pour  off  the  clear  liquid  into  another  tin  dish.  Place 
this  lye  on  the  stove  and  evaporate  all  the  water.  The 
dry  powder  found  on  the  bottom  of  the  dish  is  potash. 
A  little  potash  dissolved  in  water  makes  it  feel  soapy. 
This  "soapy  feel"  is  the  test  for  potash.  Put  some  of 
the  potash  in  a  small  bottle,  label,  and  add  to  the 
collection. 

3.  It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  uncombined  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  easiest  way  to  procure  it  is  in  com- 
bination with  lime.    Burn  a  bone  to  whiteness,  crumble 


28  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

it  Up,  and  put  it  into  a  bottle.  This  powder  is  a  com- 
bination of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  Now,  if  a  little 
water  is  poured  over  this  powder  and  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid  added,  the  lime  will  soon  settle  and 
the  clear  Hquid  will  be  phosphoric  acid. 

4.  To  prepare  nitrogen,  provide  a  glass  bottle 
with  a  large  neck,  a  piece  of  wire,  a  bit  of  cotton, 
a  little  alcohol,  and  a  shallow  dish  containing  lime 
water  to  the  depth  of  two  inches.  Twist  one  end  of 
the  wire  around  a  small  piece  of  cotton,  and  then  bend 
it  nearly  double  about  three  inches  from  the  end  bear- 
ing the  cotton.  Dip  the  cotton  in  alcohol  and  light  it. 
Resting  the  wire  loop  on  the  bottom  of  the  dish  with 
the  torch  standing  upright,  place  the  inverted  empty 
bottle  over  the  torch  so  that  the  bottle  rests  on  the 
bottom  of  the  dish  and  the  bend  in  the  wire.  Soon 
the  flame  dies  out  because  the  fire  uses  up  the  oxygen 
in  the  bottle.  The  oxygen  has  united  with  the  carbon 
of  the  alcohol,  forming  carbonic  acid  gas.  Without 
taking  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  from  the  water,  remove 
the  torch,  put  one  hand  under  the  mouth  of  the  bottle 
to  close  it  tight,  invert  the  bottle  quickly,  and  shake. 
The  lime  water  becomes  milky,  showing  that  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  has  been  taken  up  by  it.  The  colorless, 
odorless,  invisible  gas  now  remaining  in  the  bottle  is 
nitrogen. 

Plunge  a  lighted  taper  or  splinter  into  the  gas  and 
the  flame  is  immediately  extinguished,  showing  that 
the  gas  is  not  air. 


PLANT  FOODS  29 

Table  III. 

Table  showing  proportions  of  fertilizing  substances  in  farm 
crops: 

OUNCES    PER  BUSHEL. 

Phosphoric 

Crop.                                                   Nitrogen.  Acid.  Potash, 

Wheat 20  oz.  8  oz.  5  oz. 

Rye    17  oz.  9  oz.  5  oz. 

Corn,    shelled 14  oz.  5  oz.  3  oz. 

Barley  12  oz.  6  oz.  4  oz. 

Buckwheat  12  oz.  4  oz.  2  oz. 

Oats  10  oz.  3  oz.  2  oz. 

Potatoes  3  oz.  i  oz.  4  oz. 

Root  crops,  average 3  oz.  i  oz.  2  oz. 

POUNDS   PER  TON. 

Phosphoric 

Crop.                                                   Nitrogen.        Acid.  Potash. 

Timothy  or  red  top  hay 20  lbs.          9  lbs.  30  lbs. 

Clover  hay 40  lbs.  10  lbs.  40  lbs. 

Tobacco    (leaves) 60  lbs.  13  lbs.  80  lbs. 

Straw    (average) 10  lbs.          4  lbs.  20  lbs. 

Sugar   beets 3  lbs.  1-5  lb.  4  lbs. 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  im- 
portant fertihzers  in  a  crop  of  wheat  that  yields  20  bu. 
per  acre  ?    25  bu.  per  acre  ? 

2.  A  corn  crop  of  50  bu.  per  acre  ?  60  bu.  ?  75  bu.  ? 

3.  An  oat  crop  of  40  bu.  per  acre  ?  50  bu.  ?  60  bu.  ? 

4.  A  barley  crop  of  40  bu.  ?    45  bu.  ?    50  bu.  ? 

5.  A  potato  crop  of  no  bu.  per  acre?  120  bu.? 
1 50  bu.  ? 

6.  A  clover  hay  crop  of  3J/2  tons  per  acre?  4  tons? 
5  tons? 


30  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

7.  A  meadow  hay  crop  of  2  tons  per  acre?     2j4 
tons?    3  tons? 

8.  A  tobacco  crop  of  1,500  lbs.  per  acre?     1,800 
lbs.  ? 

9.  Compare  the  results  and  notice  which  crop  is 
hardest  on  the  soil. 

10.  Pupils  should  furnish  data  for  similar  prob- 
lems. Tell  how  many  acres  of  corn,  wheat,  hay,  etc., 
were  raised  on  the  farm  at  home,  the  number  of  bush- 
els or  tons  per  acre,  and  find  the  amount  of  the  three 
essential  fertilizers  taken  off  with  the  crop. 


CHAPTER  IV 


SOIL 


How  Soils  Are  Made. — A  good  deal  has  been  said 
about  soils,  and  it  may  interest  you  to  discuss  how  soils 
are  made.  The  soil  in  Wisconsin,  and  most  of  the 
northern  states,  contains  much  hard  gravel  mixed  with 
fine  soil.  This  ''drift,"  as  it  is  called,  varies  in  depth 
from  a  few  inches  to  hundreds  of  feet.  Underneath 
this  drift  is  solid  rock.  Any  "well-driller"  will  tell 
you  this.  He  can  also  tell  you  how  far  he  has  had  to 
go  down  into  the  earth,  before  striking  rock,  in  the  dif- 
ferent wells  that  he  has  drilled.  Further  he  will  tell 
you  that  this  rock  does  not  resemble  the  stone  or 
gravel  above  it.  Where,  then,  did  this  drift  come 
from  ? 

Glacial  Drift  and  Rock  Decay. — Many  years  ago, 
before  man  made  his  appearance  on  the  earth,  a  great 
mass  of  ice  and  snow,  called  a  glacier,  moved  down 
from  the  polar  regions,  scraping  up  the  loose  earth, 
rocks,  and  stones  as  it  passed  slowly  along,  crushing 
and  grinding  them  together,  wearing  off  hilltops,  fill- 
ing up  valleys  and  leaving,  as  it  passed,  the  gravelly 
soil  in  which  the  farmer  now  sows  his  seed.  The 
reason  why  the  stones  that  may  now  be  picked  up  are 


32 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


SO  hard  is  that  only  the  hard  ones  could  withstand 
the  grinding.  The  softer  ones  were  easily  ground  up 
and  formed  soil.  In  the  western  part  of  the  state  of 
Wisconsin,  in  eastern  Iowa,  and  in  northern  Illinois 
is  a  tract  known  as  the  "driftless  area,"  over  which  the 
glacier  did  not  pass.  Here  the  soil  may  be  seen  in  the 
actual  process  of  formation.     The  rock  on  top  grad- 


Drawing,  showing  how  rock 
gradually  breaks  up  and  de- 
cays from  the  top  downward. 


Drawing,  showing  glacial 
drift  deposited  on  top  of  the 
solid  rock. 


ually  "rots"  and  breaks  up.  The  water  washes  the 
lighter  portions  down  and  spreads  them  out  at  lower 
levels.  The  rain  and  snow  work  their  way  into  the 
cracks  of  the  rocks  and,  freezing  there,  break  them  up 
into  smaller  pieces.  Even  the  wind  breaks  off  small 
pieces  and  carries  them  away.  Great  drifts  of  sand, 
like  snow,  may  sometimes  be  seen  piled  up  by  the 
action  of  the  wind.  Plants  die  and  decay,  and  thus 
help  to  build  up  the  soil.  Roots  of  trees  sometimes 
work  their  way  into  crevices  of  the  rock  and,  growing 
there,  split  off  great  pieces.  Roots  also  secrete  a  kind 
of  acid  that  helps  to  dissolve  the  rock.  The  gases  in 
the  air  help  in  breaking  up  the  rock,  thus  forming  soil. 


SOIL  33 

Animals,  too,  like  the  gopher  and  woodchuck,  burrow 
into  the  earth  and  help  to  tear  up  and  break  down 
the  rock.  When  they  die  their  bodies  decay  and  be- 
come a  part  of  the  soil.  Earthworms,  or  ''angle- 
worms" as  they  are  called,  feed  on  the  soil  and  break 
up  the  particles  into  still  finer  ones. 

Agencies  of  Soil  Formation. — These  are  the  agen- 
cies, then,  that  assist  each  other  in  the  formation  of 
soil :  Glaciers,  wind,  water,  frost,  plants,  animals,  and 
gases  in  the  air. 

Kinds  of  Soils. — What  kinds  of  soils  are  formed  by 
all  these  agencies?  It  must  be  remembered  that  all 
soil  originally  came  from  the  rock,  and  the  kind  of 
soil  must  therefore  depend  on  the  kind  of  rock  from 
which  it  was  made.  That  is,  we  have  sandy  soil  in 
sandstone  regions,  and  in  limestone  regions  clay  is 
usually  found.  The  black  soil,  found  on  low  flat  land, 
is  made,  principally,  from  decayed  leaves  and  plants. 
This  soil  is  called  humus.  Humus  mixed  with  clay 
and  sand  is  called  loam.  If  there  is  more  sand  than 
clay  in  the  mixture  it  is  called  sandy  loam,  and  if  there 
is  more  clay  than  sand  in  the  mixture  it  is  called  clayey 
loam. 

The  Treatment  of  Soils. — Of  course,  these  soils  are 
found  mixed  in  every  possible  proportion.  This  fact 
leads  to  a  great  variety  of  soils,  and  it  is  the  farmer's 
business  to  learn  the  nature  of  the  soil  on  his  farm  and 
how  best  to  handle  it.  Loamy  soils  are  the  best  farm 
lands,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be 
cultivated.     They  are  warm  soils  and  hold  moisture 


34  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

well.  A  sticky  clay  soil  may  be  improved  in  texture, 
and  warmed  up  at  the  same  time,  by  a  plentiful  addi- 
tion of  barnyard  manure  containing  much  straw.  This 
adds  humus  and  makes  clay  more  like  clayey  loam. 
The  same  treatment  is  also  good  for  sand,  as  it  in- 
creases the  capacity  of  sand  for  holding  moisture  and 
makes  it  like  loam.  If  it  were  possible,  and  less  ex- 
pensive, many  barren  sandy  places  might  be  made  fer- 
tile by  adding  to  them  plentiful  quantities  of  swamp 
muck.  This  treatment  would  convert  them  into  a  loam 
of  good  quality.  Plowing  under  full  grown  crops 
of  rye  or  clover  has  much  the  same  effect.  Either 
method  adds  humus  to  the  soil  and  tends  to  make  it 
more  loamy.  Rye  grows  well  on  sandy  soil,  and  clover 
is  a  good  crop  to  raise  on  clay  for  plowing  under.  A 
good  loam  contains  all  the  foods  needed  by  growing 
plants. 

Plant  Foods  that  Become  Exhausted. — As  has  been 
said  before,  onjy  three  of  these  foods,  with  the  possible 
addition  of  lime,  ever  become  exhausted.  You  will 
remember  that  these  three  are  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  next  chapter 
to  tell  how  you  may  judge  from  the  character  of  the 
soil,  and  the  growing  crop,  which  one  of  these  plant 
foods  is  most  needed. 

Experimental  Study  of  Soils. 

I.  Rub  a  pinch  of  soil  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger. Are  its  particles  fine  or  coarse  ?  Spread  a  little 
on  the  palm  of  the  hand.     Are  the  particles  all  of  the 


SOIL  35 

same  size?  Does  there  seem  to  be  any  decayed  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  par- 
ticles?   Are  they  all  of  the  same  color? 

2.  Small  samples  of  soil  may  be  spread  out  in  a 
thin  layer  on  white  paper  and  further  examined  with  a 
magnifying  glass. 

3.  Thoroughly  dry  a  sample  of  fine  sand  without 
lumps,  and  fill  a  water-tight  tin  can  with  it.  Fill 
another  can  of  exactly  the  same  size  with  loam  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way.  From  a  graduate^  pour  water 
on  the  sand,  allowing  time  for  it  to  soak  in.  Soon  the 
sand  will  have  absorbed  all  the  water  it  can  hold,  and 
the  level  of  the  water  will  be  even  with  the  surface  of 
the  sand  in  the  can.  What  has  become  of  the  water 
which  you  poured  onto  the  soil  ?  How  much  water  have 
you  used?  Now  do  exactly  the  same  thing  with  the 
loam  soil  and  compare  results.  Which  soil  has  more 
pore  space? 

4.  Fill  three  soil  tubes^  respectively  with  fine  dry 
sand,  clay,  and  loam.     Set  the  filled  tubes  in  separate 

'  A  graduate  may  be  made  by  ruling  lines  one-eighth  inch  apart 
on  a  strip  of  paper  and  pasting  the  paper  vertically  on  a  glass 
tumbler. 

'  To  prepare  soil  tubes :  Take  some  tall  glass  bottles,  wrap  a 
cloth  wrung  out  of  cold  water  around  each  about  half  an  inch 
from  the  bottom,  and  place  the  bottles  on  a  hot  stove.  The 
sudden  expansion  of  the  bottom  will  usually  break  it  off  even. 
Smooth  the  edges  with  a  file  or  on  a  grindstone.  Plug  the  neck 
of  each  bottle  with  cotton,  and  turn  it  upside  down.  A  rack  for 
holding  these  tubes  in  an  upright  position  can  easily  be  made  by 
nailing  slats  or  stretching  wire  or  strong  cord  across  the  top  of  a 
small  box. 


36.  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

dishes,  and  pour  into  each  from  the  top  the  same 
amount  of  water.  When  it  soaks  out  of  sight  pour  in 
more.  Use  your  graduate  for  this,  so  that  you  will  get 
exactly  the  same  amount  of  water  in  each  tube.  Which 
soil  holds  water  best?  Which  soil  allows  it  to  soak 
through  most  rapidly? 

Free  Bulletins,  TJ.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Bureau  of  Soils. 

Circular  No.     4. — Soils  of  Salt  Lake  Valley,  Utah. 
Circular  No.    8. — Reclamation  of  Salt  Marsh  Lands. 
Circular  No.  13. — The  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 

Table  IV. 
Table  showing  fertilizing  substances  in  average  soils: 

POUNDS   PER  TON. 

Phosphoric 

Soil.                                                    Nitrogen.  Acid.  Potash. 

Loam   7  lbs.  3  lbs.  8  lbs. 

Clay    3  lbs.  3  lbs.  '       15  lbs. 

Drift  3  lbs.  >4  lb.  6  lbs. 

Sand  I  lb.  2  lbs.  5  lbs. 

(Adapted  from  Stockbridge.) 

Problems. 

1.  Suppose  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  4  in. 
How  many  cu.  ft.  of  cultivated  soil  per  sq.  ft.  of  area? 
Per  sq.  yd.  ?    Per  sq.  rod  ?    Per  acre  ? 

2.  If  a  cu.  ft.  of  soil  weighs  75  lbs.,  how  many  lbs 
of  cultivated  soil  per  sq.  yard?     Per  sq.  rod?     Per 
acre? 


SOIL  37 

3.  Find  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen,  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  cultivated  soil  per  acre  for 
each  of  the  four  kinds  of  soil. 

4.  If  the  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  eight 
inches,  how  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  fer- 
tilizing substances  per  acre  in  each  of  the  soils  given  in 
the  table  ? 

5.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  used,  annually,  per  acre,  by  a  crop 
of  20  bu.  of  wheat?  In  how  many  years  will  one-half 
of  all  the  nitrogen  in  clay  be  used  up  by  this  crop 
feeding  to  the  depth  of  eight  inches? 

6.  How  will  this  affect  future  crops? 

7.  Work  the  same  problem  for  the  other  soils. 

8.  Use  a  50  bushel  corn  crop  per  acre  and  work 
problem  7.  Also  a  60  bu.  oat  crop.  A  120  bu.  potato 
crop. 

9.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  CROP 


Lack  of  Plant  Food  in  Soil. — As  suggested  in  the 
last  chapter,  the  crop  will  usually  tell  the  farmer  by 
its  appearance  the  kind  of  food  it  most  needs.  How- 
ever, the  only  way  by  which  he  can  find  this  out  for 
a  certainty  is  by  making  careful  experiments  with  the 
three  essential  fertilizers.  Good,  fertile,  well-drained 
soil,  properly  cultivated,  usually  produces  healthy,  dark 
green  plants  with  strong,  good-sized  stalks  and  numer- 
ous well-filled  seeds. 

Nitrogen. — Now,  the  growth  of  the  stalk  and  foliage 
of  the  plant  is  largely  due  to  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  drainage  is  good  and 
other  conditions  of  heat,  light,  air  and  moisture  are 
favorable.  If  the  plant  has  a  yellow  and  sickly  appear- 
ance and,  with  proper  cultivation,  refuses  to  grow,  it 
is  likely  starving  for  want  of  nitrogen.  What  should 
the  farmer  do? 

The  Best  Fertilizer. — Barnyard  manure  is  an  almost 
perfect  fertilizer;  that  is,  it  has  the  right  amounts  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  it  in  a  form 
readily  obtainable  by  the  plant.    A  plentiful  application 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  CROP  39 

of  barnyard  manure  will  improve  the  next  crop,  and  is 
the  best  remedy  for  yellow  and  sickly  plants. 

Plants  as  Fertilizers. — In  the  next  place,  clover, 
alfalfa,  peas  and  like  plants  which  bear  their  seeds  in 
pods  may  grow  well  on  this  kind  of  soil,  because  they 
have  the  power  of  using  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  in  a 
way  that  will  be  explained  later.  These  plants  store 
up  the  nitrogen  that  they  take  from  the  air,  and  if  they 
are  plowed  under  when  full  grown  they  add  this  store 
of  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  besides  forming  an  excellent 
soil  mulch.  While  generally  not  so  good  as  barnyard 
manure,  clover  is  an  excellent  means  of  restoring  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil.  In  some  cases  it  does  more  for  the 
soil  than  barnyard  manure  can,  and  it  is  easier  of 
application. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — Another  method  consists 
of  applying  commercial  fertilizers  containing  nitro- 
gen directly  to  the  soil.  These  may  be  bought  in  the 
market,  but  as  yet  they  are  little  used  by  the  farmers, 
because  manure  and  clover  are  ordinarily  cheaper,  more 
convenient  and  easier  to  apply.  Guano,  saltpeter,  fish 
and  animal  refuse  from  slaughter  houses  are  the  prin- 
cipal commercial  fertilizers  that  contain  large  amounts 
of  this  much-needed  plant. food. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — A  shortage  of  phosphoric  acid  in 
the  soil  is  usually  shown  by  small,  undeveloped  and 
hrunken  seeds.  The  grain  does  not  "fill  well,"  as  the 
farmer  says.  The  ground  has  been  carefully  prepared, 
tilled  and  drained.  What  is  he  to  do?  Nothing  is 
simpler.    Apply  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers  to  the  soil. 


40  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Here,  again,  barnyard  manure,  because  it  is  a  nearly 
perfect  fertilizer,  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  easily 
obtainable  for  the  purpose.  Ground  bones,  burned 
bones,  marls  and  rock  phosphates  are  the  fertilizers  of 
commerce  and  are  being  more  and  more  extensively 
used. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

Fertilized     with  No  fertilizers,  2.110            Fertilized         with 

560     lbs.     of    mixed  lbs.  of  hay  per  acre.        720     lbs.     of    mixed 

Nitrate,   Potash  and  Nitrate,   Potash   and 

Phosphate.         4,310  Phosphate.         6,610 

lbs.  of  hay  per  acre.  lbs.  of  hay  per  acre. 

(Cornell  University  Bulletin.) 

Source  of  Potash. — Potash  is  especially  essential  to 
the  production  of  fruits,  potatoes  and  root  crops.  In 
most  cases,  when  other  conditions  are  perfect,  under- 
sized, shriveled  and  imperfect  fruits  and  roots  are 
due  to  a  lack  of  potash.  Here  again  barnyard  manure 
is  the  usual  remedy.  Wood  ashes  are  especially  val- 
uable because  of  the  potash  which  they  contain.  They 
should  never  be  wasted,  but  saved  and  put  on  the  land. 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  CROP  41 

Potash  salts  may  be  bought  on  the  market,  but  Hke 
other  commercial  fertilizers  they  have  not  yet  come 
into  general  use. 

Chemical  Effect  of  Commercial  Fertilizers  on  Soil. 
— There  is  still  another  use  to  which  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, like  lime  and  land  plaster,  are  put.  They  are 
used  not  so  much  because  they  are  themselves  plant 
foods,  but  because  of  the  chemical  effect  which  they 
have  upon  the  soil.  Your  attention  has  already  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  plants  sometimes  starve  with  an 
abundance  of  food  near  at  hand,  but  in  a  form  in 
which  they  cannot  use  it  for  food — locked  up,  as  it 
were,  like  bread  and  butter  in  a  pantry.  If  a  boy  were 
starving  because  his  food  was  ''locked  up"  he  would 
want  the  key.  No  boy  will  die  of  starvation  with  a 
well-filled  cupboard,  unlocked,  in  the  house.  Neither 
will  plants  starve  when  suitable  food  is  obtainable. 
Now,  lime  and  land  plaster  are  the  keys  that  unlock 
other  plant  foods  in  the  soil  and  change  them  into  a 
form  in  which  the  plants  can  use  them.  It  is,  princi- 
pally, for  this  reason  that  they  are  used. 

Summary. — To  sum  up  what  has  already  been  said : 


THE  BOYS  CHORES. 


42  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Barnyard  manure  is  called  a  perfect  fertilizer  because 
it  contains  all  the  elements  that  become  exhausted  from 
the  soil,  namely :  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
It  is  usually  easy  to  get,  and  for  these  reasons  is 
generally  recommended.  Clover,  plowed  under,  will  re- 
store nitrogen  to  the  soil  because  it  has  power  to  take 
nitrogen  from  the  air,  a  power  which  few  other  plants 
have.  Wood  ashes  are  rich  in  potash  and  should  never 
be  wasted,  but  sown  on  the  soil.  Commercial  fer- 
tilizers, containing  what  the  soil  especially  needs,  may 
be  bought  and  applied.  When  they  are  wisely  selected 
the  profit  from  their  use  is  large.  The  subject  of  fer- 
tilizers and  fertilization  is  a  large  and  very  important 
one  to  the  farmer.  It  needs  much  thought  and  care- 
ful study,  and  is  only  touched  upon  here  in  the  briefest 
possible  manner.  The  problems  which  follow  will  help 
to  emphasize  the  points  made  in  this  chapter. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Extracts. 

No.  169. — Soil  Investigations  in  the  United  States. 

Table  V. 

Showing  average  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potasli  in  fertilizers: 

POUNDS    PER   TON. 

Phosphoric 

Substance.                                    Nitrogen.  Acid.           Potash. 

Clover   hay 40  lbs.  10  lbs.            40  lbs. 

Straw   10  lbs.  4  lbs.            20  lbs. 

Barnyard  manure 10  lbs.  6  lbs.              9  lbs. 

Wood  ashes 60  lbs.          160  lbs. 

Burned  bones 500  lbs. 

Ground  bones 400  lbs. 


THE  SOIL  AND  THE  CROP  43 

Problems. 

1.  Suppose  a  load  of  barnyard  manure  weighs  a 
ton.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  it?  Of  phos- 
phoric acid  ?    Of  potash  ? 

2.  How  much  of  each  of  the  above  m  15  loads? 
20  loads  ?    50  loads  ? 

3.  How  many  loads  of  manure  were  hauled  onto 
your  land  last  year?  How  much  of  each  fertilizing 
substance  was  supplied  ? 

4.  H  you  put  15  loads  on  an  acre,  how  much  of 
each  fertilizing  substance  per  acre? 

5.  Suppose  you  harvested  50  bu.  of  corn  per  acre. 
How  much  of  each  fertilizing  substance  did  you  take 
off  with  the  crop  ? 

6.  Was  your  soil  richer  or  poorer  after  the  corn 
was  harvested?  Did  you  take  off  more  than  you  put 
on?    How  much  of  each  kind? 

7.  How  niuch  of  each  of  these  fertilizing  sub- 
stances is  taken  off  with  a  25  bu.  crop  per  acre  of 
wheat  ?    A  40  bu.  crop  of  barley  ? 

8.  How  many  loads  of  manure  per  acre  are  neces- 
sary to  restore  the  fertility  lost  when  a  25  bu.  per  acre 
wheat  crop  is  harvested? 

9.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  VI 


WEARING  OUT  THE  SOIL 


Soil  Exhaustion. — From  what  we  learned  in  the  last 
chapter,  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  farmer  who  raises 
grain  and  tobacco  to  sell,  and  who  returns  nothing  to 
the  land  in  the  form  of  fertilizers,  is  literally  ''selling 
his  farm."  He  sells  soil  in  small  quantities,  it  is  true, 
but  he  sells  it  nevertheless.  There  can  be  but  one  re- 
sult from  this  kind  of  farming.  No  matter  how  rich 
the  soil,  sooner  or  later  it  will  wear  out.  The  poorer 
the  land  the  sooner  will  its  fertility  become  exhausted. 

Over-Cropping  Land. — In  the  early  history  of  Wis- 
consin much  wheat  was  grown,  the  land  in  many  cases 
yielding  as  high  as  forty  bushels  per  acre.  But  the 
yield  rapidly  decreased  until  no  more  than  ten  or  fif- 
teen bushels  could  be  grown.  The  farmers  gave  up 
selling  wheat,  and  the  wheat  belt  moved  on  to  the 
west.  Why  was  this  ?  Simply  because  wheat,  a  heavy 
feeder  as  shown  by  the  tables,  wore  out  the  soil.  No 
fertilizers  were  returned  to  take  the  place  of  the  soil 
matter  taken  off  with  the  wheat,  and  in  a  few  years  the 
wheat  crop  starved  out.  What  is  true  of  wheat  is 
equally  true  of  every  other  crop,  in  the  proportion  in 


WEARING  OUT  THE  SOIL 


45 


which  it  uses  up  in  its  growth  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash. 

How  Fertility  May  Be  Retained. — Progressive 
farmers  have  learned  that  grain  farming  does  not  pay, 
and  they  have  gone  into  dairying  and  have  prospered. 
Why  is  dairy  farming  so 
much  better  ?  Because  the 
grain  and  hay  raised  on 
the  farm  are  fed  there  and 
returned  again  to  the  soil 
in  the  form  of  barnyard 
manure.  Very  little  soil 
matter  is  sold  from  the 
farm.  The  proportion  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  in  butter, 
cheese,  beef  and  pork  is 
very  small  for  the  amount 
of  feed  consumed,  as  the 
table  following  this  chap- 
ter will  show.  It  will  take 
a  long  time  to  lessen  to  any  great  extent  the  amount 
of  these  substances  in  the  soil  by  dairy  farming. 

Clover  Enriches  the  Soil. — Again,  the  dairy  farmer 
raises  much  clover,  and  clover,  as  you  have  already 
seen,  really  enriches  the  soil  by  adding  to  it  nitrogen 
from  the  air. 

Summary. — The  wise  farmer  wastes  nothing.  If  he 
raises  peas  and  corn,  for  the  canning  factory,  he  hauls 
the  vines  and  stalks  back  to  his  farm.     If  he  grows 


Tubercles  on  the  roots  of  soja 
beans  In  which  nitrogen  from  the 
air   is  stored   up. 


46  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

beets  for  the  sugar  factory,  he  has  the  pulp  returned  to 
his  land.  He  sells  neither  hay  nor  grain,  but  feeds  it 
on  his  farm.  He  saves  all  manure  and  carefully 
returns  it  to  the  soil. 

Experimental  Study  of  Soil  Treatment. 

1.  Fill  one  soil  tube  with  dry  sand.  Take  some 
very  dry  clover  hay  and  pulverize  it  very  fine  with  the 
hands,  throwing  out  all  coarse  material.  Mix  this  pul- 
verized hay  with  about  twice  its  volume  of  sand,  and 
fill  another  soil  tube  with  the  mixture.  Now  pour 
water  into  the  top  of  each  tube  and  see  which  holds  it 
the  better.  What  are  the  effects  upon  a  sandy  soil  of 
plowing  under  clover? 

2.  Make  a  "mud  pie"  of  clay  and  set  it  in  the  sun  to 
bake.  Make  another  mixture  of  clay  and  pulverized 
clover  hay,  and  set  this  beside  the  first  one.  When 
both  pies  are  baked,  see  which  can  be  more  easily 
broken  up.  What  are  the  effects  upon  a  clay  soil  of 
plowing  under  clover  ? 

3.  Take  two  samples  of  clay — one  very  wet,  the 
other  only  slightly  moist — and  place  them  in  the  sun 
to  dry.  Which  makes  the  harder  cake  ?  In  what  con- 
dition, as  to  moisture,  should  clay  soil  be  when  plowed  ? 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers*  Bulletins. 

No.    44. — Commercial  Fertilizers:    Composition  and  Use. 
No.    'j'j. — The  Liming  of  Soils. 
No.  192. — Barnyard  Manure. 


WEARING  OUT  THE  SOIL  47 

Table  VI. 
Table  showing  fertilizing  substances  in  dairy  products: 

OUNCES    PER    100    POUNDS. 

Phosphoric 

Nitrogen.         Acid.  Potash. 

Cheese  63  oz.            10  oz,  2  oz. 

Milk 8  oz.              3  oz.  3  oz. 

Butter   2  oz.          3-5  oz.  ^  oz. 

Table  VH. 
Table  showing  fertilizing  substances  in  farm  animals: 

OUNCES    PER    100    POUNDS. 

Phosphoric 

Nitrogen.         Acid.  Potash. 

Cattle  40  oz.            29  oz.  3  oz. 

Sheep 35  oz.            19  oz.  3  oz. 

Hogs   32  oz.          130  oz.  2V2  oz. 

Problems. 

1.  How  much  nitrogen  is  sold  from  the  farm  with 
every  ton  of  butter?  How  much  phosphoric  acid? 
How  much  potash  ? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  these  three  substances 
are  sold  with  every  ton  of  cheese  ? 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  each  are  sold  with  100 
lbs.  of  butter?  With  100  lbs.  of  cheese?  Which  is 
harder  on  the  soil  ? 

4.  How  much  of  each  of  these   fertilizing  sub- 
tances  in  a  300  lb.  pig? 

5.  How  much  of  each  of  these  fertilizing  sub- 
stances in  a  1,200  lb.  steer? 

6.  A  farmer  sells  20  hogs,  each  weighing  225  lbs. 


48  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

How  many  pounds  of  each  kind  of  fertilizing  sub- 
stance does  he  sell  ? 

7.  Suppose  he  sells  6  head  of  cattle  weighing  1,050 
lbs.  each.  How  much  of  each  of  these  three  sub- 
stances does  he  sell  ? 

8.  How  much  butter  did  you  (each  family  repre- 
sented in  the  class)  sell  last  year?  How  much  of  each 
of  these  three  fertilizing  substances  did  you  sell  with 
the  butter?  Did  it  wear  out  the  farm  much?  About 
how  many  loads  of  manure  will  it  take  to  replace 
them?     (Suppose  a  load  of  manure  weighs  a  ton.) 

9.  How  many  hogs  did  you  sell  last  year?  About 
how  much  did  they  weigh?  How  much  phosphoric 
acid  went  with  them?  How  much  nitrogen?  How 
much  potash  ? 

10.  Did  you  sell  any  wheat?  Any  other  grain? 
If  so,  how  much?  How  much  of  your  farm  went 
with  it? 

1 1.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  other  similar  prob- 
lems. 


CHAPTER  VII 


LEGUMES 


Restoring  Nitrogen  to  the  Soil. — From  a  study  of 
the  table  on  fertilizing  substances  in  different  soils, 
and  a  comparison  of  this  table  with  the  one  on  fer- 
tilizing substances  in  farm  crops,  it  will  be  seen  that 
nitrogen  is  the  element  which,  from  ordinary  soils 
and  under  ordinary  conditions  of  farming,  is  likely 
to  be  the  soonest  exhausted.  Ordinarily,  then,  the 
farmer's  attention  should  be  turned  to  methods  of 
restoring  nitrogen.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure 
were  produced  on  the  farm,  of  course  the  best  method 
of  fertilizing  would  be  to  apply  barnyard  manure  to 
the  soil,  as  it  not  only  contains  nitrogen,  but  also  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  the  other  needed  elements. 
But  it  is  not  always  possible  to  do  this.  There  is  a 
<  lass  of  plants,  however,  called  legumes,  that  have  the 
power  to  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Peas,  beans,  clover, 
alfalfa,  cowpeas,  and  soja  beans  belong  to  this  class. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  explain  the  manner 
in  which  these  plants  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

Composition  of  Air. — The  air  that  we  breathe  is 
ir.poscd  largely  of  two  gases — oxygen  and  nitrogen. 


so  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Both  are  colorless,  odorless  and  invisible.  About  one- 
fifth  of  the  air  is  oxygen  and  the  other  four-fifths 
nitrogen.  Oxygen  is  a  very  active  element,  combining 
readily  with  other  substances.  It  is  the  oxygen  that 
causes  iron  to  rust,  coal  to  burn,  or  wood  to  decay.  If 
the  air  were  pure  oxygen,  any  fire  once  started  could 
never  be  put  out,  and  even  our  bodies  would  take  fire 
and  burn. 

Nature  of  Nitrogen. — On  the  other  hand,  nitrogen 
is  a  very  inactive  element  and  does  not  combine  readily 
with  other  substances.  Its  presence  in  the  air  dilutes 
the  oxygen  and  makes  its  less  active.  It  is  well  known 
that  tea  can  be  made  so  strong  that  no  person  can 
drink  it.  It  may  be  readily  diluted  and  its  strength 
greatly  lessened,  however,  by  the  addition  of  water.  It 
is  much  the  same  way  with  oxygen.  It  is  so  active  that 
it  must  be  mixed  with  nitrogen  before  it  can  be  used  by 
man  and  animals.  It  is  mixed  in  the  air,  there  being, 
as  has  been  said,  about  four  times  as  much  nitrogen  as 
oxygen  in  it.  Farm  crops  cannot  use  this  ''free"  nitro- 
gen in  the  air. 

The  Use  of  Bacteria. — There  are,  however,  little 
plant-like  germs,  called  bacteria,  which  live  in  the  soil, 
that  can  and  do  feed  upon  this  free  nitrogen  in  the  air. 
These  germs  are  a  kind  of  parasite  and  are  usually 
found  associated  with  the  legumes,  i.  e.,  with  peas, 
beans,  clover  and  the  like.  They  fasten  themselves  to 
the  roots  of  these  plants  and  build  their  homes  there. 
Their  little  "nests"  look  like  tiny  potatoes  and  are 
called  tubercles.    They  are  about  as  large  as  pinheads 


LEGUMES 


51 


f'LOVEB  AND  ALFALFA  ROOTS  SHOWING  TUBERCLES. 


and  are  to  be  found  adhering  to  the  roots  of  clover, 
l)cans  and  peas.  Pull  up  a  bunch  of  thrifty  clover,  or 
any  other  legume,  and  examine  its  roots  for  these 
tuljercles.     A  i)eculiar  thing  alxjut  these  germs  is  that 


52  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

they  do  not  seem  to  thrive  without  the  legumes  and  the 
legumes  do  not  thrive  without  the  germs.  Sometimes 
clover  refuses  to  grow  on  certain  soils.  The  reason  is 
that  there  are  no  germs  in  the  soil.  Such  soils  should 
be  "inoculated,"  i.  e.,  the  germs  should  be  planted 
there,  and  then  the  clover  will  grow.  These  germs  are 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  little  cakes,  somewhat  resembling  yeast  cakes, 
which  may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  sprayed  on  the 
land. 


ALFALFA   FIELD,    ONE-HALF   OF    WHICH    HAD    BEEN 
INOCULATED. 

Clover  Restores  Nitrogen  to  the  Soil. — In  order  to 
restore  nitrogen  to  worn-out  soil  it  is  only  necessary 
to  seed  with  clover  or  some  other  legume.  The  germs 
found  in  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of  the  legume  will 
feed  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  store  it  up  in  thp 


LEGUMES  53 

legume.  If  this  crop  is  plowed  under,  nitrogen  is 
added  to  the  soil,  which  is  consequently  enriched  and 
at  the  same  time  improved  in  texture,  especially  if  it 
be  a  clayey  soil.  This  is  the  secret  of  clover  growing 
on  the  farm.  It  is  the  common  practice  among  farm- 
ers to  cut  the  first  crop  of  clover  for  hay  and  plow 
under  the  second  crop.  Thus  the  clover  is  made  to 
serve  a  double  purpose — first  furnishing  food  for  stock, 
and  next  a  supply  of  nitrogen  for  the  soil. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Fanners'  Bulletins. 

No.    89. — Cowpeas. 

No.  194. — Alfalfa  Seed. 

No.  214. — Beneficial  Bacteria  for  Leguminous  Crops. 

No.  215. — Alfalfa  Growing. 

Problems. 

1.  How  does  clover  compare  with  other  kinds  of 
hay  in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  it  contains  ?  Phosphoric 
acid  ?     Potash  ? 

2.  If  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre  is  an  average  yield, 
how  much  of  each  fertilizer  is  removed  yearly  with 
this  crop  from  8  acres  of  ground. 

3.  Which  kind  of  hay  makes  the  richest  manure ?^ 
Why? 

4.  How  much  more  of  nitrogen  in  a  crop  of  25 
acres  of  clover  hay,  yielding  3  tons  per  acre,  than  in 
the  same  number  of  acres  of  mixed  hay  yielding  2 
tons  p^r  acre?  Where  does  this  extra  nitrogen  come 
from 


54  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

5.  How  many  tons  of  each  kind  of  hay  did  you 
raise  on  the  farm  last  year? 

6.  How  many  tons  of  hay  did  you  sell  last  year? 
How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  important 
kinds  of  "soil  fertility"  did  you  sell?  How  many 
pounds  altogether  ?  • 

7.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


TILLING  THE  SOIL 


Tillage. — Tillage  stands  next  in  importance  to  fer- 
tilization, and  with  many  soils  it  is  even  more  impor- 
tant. Tillage  is  here  meant  to  include  both  the  prep- 
aration of  the  soil  before  planting  and,  with  the  crops 
that  admit  of  it,  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  after  it  is 
l)lanted. 

Effect  on  Roots. — As  we  have  learned,  the  plant  is 
fed  by  its  roots  that  penetrate  the  soil  in  every  direc- 
tion. These  feeding  roots  are  very  small  and  work 
their  way  between  the  soil  particles,  gathering  up  the 
dissolved  food  and  passing  it  into  the  plant.  If  the 
soil  is  coarse  and  lumpy  these  little  rootlets  cannot  get 
at  the  food  locked  up  in  the  lumps,  but  can  only  feed 
upon  their  surface.  Proper  preparation  of  the  soil 
will  break  up  these  lumps,  pulverize  them,  and  allow 
the  roots  of  the  plants  to  get  at  the  food  matter  which 
they  contain.  Again,  water  cannot  easily  dissolve 
I)lant  foods  in  lumpy  ground.  Stirring  the  soil  will 
hasten  the  solution  of  this  food  matter.  These  facts 
may  be  easily  shown  by  experiment. 

How  Solids  Dissolve. — Throw  a  handful  of  fine  salt 


56  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

into  a  tumbler  of  water.  Into  another  tumbler  put  a 
lump  of  salt  or  a  piece  of  rock  salt  about  the  same 
size.  Which  dissolves  the  sooner?  Stir  both  and  note 
the  effect  of  stirring.  Does  stirring  hasten  solution? 
Now  put  the  same  amount  of  fine  salt  in  each  of  two 
glasses.    Stir  one,  but  do  not  disturb  the  other. 

The  Effect  of  Stirring  Soil. — You  have  noticed,  in 
the  above  experiments,  that  lumpy  salt  dissolves  much 
more  slowly  than  fine  salt,  and  that  stirring  always 
hastens  solution.  It  is  just  so  with  plant  foods  con- 
tained in  the  soil.  Lumpy  soil  holds  the  plant  foods 
so  that  the  plant  cannot  get  them,  and  cultivation 
has  the  same  effect  upon  them  that  stirring  has  upon 
the  salt  in  the  water.  It  causes  them  to  dissolve  or  in 
some  way  makes  them  accessible.  The  plant  cannot 
use  these  foods  until  they  are  in  the  right  condition,  so 
that  excellent  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting, 
and  constant  cultivation  of  it  after  planting,  both  tend 
to  increase  the  supply  of  plant  food  as  well  as  to 
hasten  the  growth  of  plants. 

Deep  Cultivation  Best. — The  depth  to  which  soils 
should  be  cultivated  depends  in  a  large  degree  upon 
the  depth  to  which  the  plant  roots  will  penetrate.  The 
grains  are  shallow-rooted  and  do  not  need  so  deep 
cultivation  as  do  corn  and  root  crops.  The  farmer  is 
not  likely  to  plow  too  deep  for  any  crop,  however. 
Deep  plowing  brings  to  the  surface  plant  foods  that 
have  never  been  reached  by  shallow  cultivation,  and  it 
pulverizes  the  soil  so  that  the  roots  can  penetrate  it  tg 
a  great  depth  and  have  more  soil  to  feed  upon. 


TILLING  THE  SOIL 


57 


Deep  Plowing  for  Root  Crops. — For  root  crops  the 
ground  must  be  plowed  deep  and  be  very  carefully 
pulverized.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this.  In  the 
first  place,  poorly  pulverized  soil  spoils  the  shape  of 


THE   RESULT  OF  CAREFUL  CULTIVATION. 
This  tomato  plant  attained  the  height  of  eleven  feet,  six  inches  and 
bore  one  hundred  one  perfectly  formed  tomatoes. 


roots  like  beets  and  parsnips.  They  cannot  grow 
equally  in  all  directions,  and  become  crooked,  split,  and 
misshapen  because  of  the  hindrance  of  lumps  to  their 
growth.  In  the  second  place,  if  they  cannot  penetrate 
the  soil  easily,  when  they  strike  the  hard  soil  below, 


58  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

they  will  be  raised  out  of  the  ground  as  they  increase 
in  length.  All  that  has  been  said  about  cultivation  of 
plants  applies  with  special  force  to  root  crops. 

How  Water  Rises  in  Soil. — Another  important 
reason  for  cultivation  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
cultivated  soils  do  not  dry  out  so  rapidly  during  a 
drought.  This  seems  strange  at  first,  but  it  is  never- 
theless true,  and  the  reason  is  easily  seen.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  water  in  the  ground — capillary  water 
and  "free,"  underground,  water.  Underground  water 
flows  along  beneath  the  surface  and  sometimes  comes 
out  again  in  the  form  of  springs.  It  is  this  water 
that  supplies  our  wells.  But  it  is  the  capillary  water, 
and  not  the  "free"  water,  that  is  used  by  the  plants. 
A  simple  illustration  will  make  clear  what  capillary 
water  is.  You  have,  no  doubt,  observed  how  oil  rises 
in  the  lamp-wick.  The  oil  in  the  wick  is  moving 
upward  and  may  be  called  "capillary"  oil,  while  that 
in  the  lamp  is  "free."  The  oil  in  the  wick  corre- 
sponds to  the  capillary  water  in  the  soil,  while  that 
in  the  lamp  corresponds  to  the  underground  water. 
Another  illustration:  At  the  breakfast  table  take  a 
spoonful  of  sugar  and  just  touch  the  tip  of  the  spoon 
to  the  surface  of  the  coffee  in  your  cup,  and  notice 
how  the  coffee  creeps  up  into  the  sugar.  It  is  in 
exactly  the  same  way  that  the  underground  water 
creeps  upward  in  the  soil  and  becomes  capillary  water. 
Still  another  illustration:  Fill  a  pan  half  full  of 
water ;  set  it  on  a  table  and  throw  a  rag  over  the  edge 
so  that  one  end  will  dip  intQ  the  water  and  the  other 


TILLING  THE  SOIL 


59 


end  will  lie  on  the  table.  In  a  little  while  the  water 
will  be  running  from  the  pan  out  upon  the  table.  In 
other  words,  it  runs  "up-hill,"  through  the  cloth,  over 
the  edge  of  the  pan,  and  "down-hill"  through  the 
cloth  to  the  tabl^.  The  water  that  runs  up-hill  is 
capillary  water,  while  that  in  the  pan  is  free  water. 
The  capillary  water  is  being  continually  supplied  from 
the  free  water  in  the  pan  below.    Let  us  remember  that 


% 


A  WELL  CULTIVATED  CORN  FIELD. 


it  is  the  capillary  water  which  the  plant  uses  and  which 
is  also  evaporating  from  the  soil. 

Cultivation  Retards  Evaporation. — We  know  that  if 
we  cover  up  a  kettle  it  keeps  the  water  from  evaporat- 
ing, "boiling  away,"  as  we  say.  In  the  same  way  a 
blanket,  spread  over  the  soil,  will  prevent  the  evapora- 


6o  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

tion  of  this  capillary  water.  The  simplest  way  to  get 
this  blanket  spread  over  the  soil  is  to  cultivate  it.  The 
layer  of  cultivated  soil  dries  out  very  rapidly,  but  it 
prevents  the  air  from  getting  at  the  moist  soil  under- 
neath, and  thus  keeps  it  from  drying  out.  It  acts  as  a 
sort  of  dry  blanket  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture. 

Summary. — There  are  three  chief  reasons  for  till- 
ing the  soil :  ( i )  To  pulverize  it,  making  it  easy 
for  the  plant  roots  to  penetrate  it  in  every  direction 
and  to  get  at  the  store  of  food  it  contains.  (2)  To  stir 
it  and  thus  hasten  the  solution  of  plant  food  as  well  as 
to  destroy  weeds  that  rob  the  plants  of  their  food. 
(3)  To  form  a  soil  mulch,  a  sort  of  "dry  blanket," 
which  will  prevent  rapid  evaporation  of  the  capillary 
water  from  the  soil. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.  306. — Some  Soil  Problems  for  Practical  Farmers. 
Problems. 

1.  How  many  square  feet  in  one  square  yard?  In 
one  acre? 

2.  If  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  4  in.,  how 
many  cubic  feet  of  cultivated  soil  per  acre  ?  How 
many,  if  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  6  in.  ?  If  culti- 
vated to  the  depth  of  8  in.  ? 

3.  How  rhuch  more  plant  food  is  made  available 
with  cultivation  to  the  depth  of  8  in,  than  with  a  4  in. 
depth  of  cultivation? 


Vo.     ^^  ^TILLING  THE  SOIL  6i 

4.  How  many  times  as  much  available  plant  food 
in  soil  cultivated  to  the  depth  of  6  in.  as  in  soil  culti- 
vated only  4  in.  deep? 

5.  If  a  man  and  team  can  plow  i^  acres  6  in. 
deep,  or  2  acres  4  in.  deep,  in  a  day,  how  much  more 
does  it  cost  per  acre  to  plow  land  6  in.  deep  than  to 
plow  it  only  4  in.  deep?    Labor  worth  $2.40  per  day. 

6.  If  a  man  and  team  can  till  3  acres  thoroughly 
in  a  day,  or  5  acres  in  a  careless  manner,  how  much 
more  per  acre  does  a  good  job  cost,  labor  being  worth 
$2.40  per  day  ? 

7.  How  much  more  per  acre  does  it  cost  to  both 
])low  and  till  well?  How  many  additional  bushels  of 
oats  worth  $0.36  per  bu.  will  it  take  to  pay  for  the 
additional  labor? 

8.  How  much  will  be  the  gain  if  but  40  bu.  of  oats 
can  be  raised  with  shallow  plowing  and  careless  seed- 
ing, and  57  bu.  with  the  extra  work?  How  much  will 
these  oats  be  worth  at  24  cents  per  bu.  ?  At  $0.30  per 
bu.  ?    At  the  present  price  of  oats? 

9.  A  certain  piece  of  land  yields  35  bu.  of  corn 
per  acre.  By  careful  cultivation  the  farmer  is  able  to 
increase  this  yield  to  60  bu.  With  corn  worth  $0.40 
per  bu.  how  many  additional  days'  labor  at  $1  per  day 
will  the  extra  yield  pay  for? 

10.  If  he  spends  but  20  days'  extra  time  on  his 
i2-acre  field  of  corn  to  produce  the  increase  in  crop 
shown  in  problem  9,  how  much  does  he  get  per  day  for 
his  extra  time? 

1 1.  Suppose  a  farmer  is  able  to  double  the  average 


62  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

yield  of  i6o  bu.  of  potatoes  from  an  acre  of  land  by 
putting  15  da3^s'  extra  time  on  it.  What  wages  does 
he  get  with  potatoes  at  $0.25  per  bu.  ? 

12.  From  answers  to  the  following  questions  make 
other  problems  similar  to  the  above.  What  does  labor 
cost  per  day?  How  many  acres  can  a  man  plow  per 
day?  How  many  acres  can  he  seed  in  a  day?  How 
many  acres  of  corn  can  he  cultivate  ?  Will  extra  labor 
increase  the  yield  of  corn?  etc.,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IX 


DRAINING  THE  SOIL 


Underground  Water. — As  was  stated  in  the  last 
chapter,  the  plant  makes  use  of  the  capillary  water  in 
the  soil,  and  this  capillary  water  is  being  continually 
supplied  from  the  free  water  in  the  ground  below. 
There  is  a  level  to  this  underground  water,  just  the 
same  as  there  is  a  level  to  the  water  in  a  pond.  On 
low,  flat  land  this  level  is  very  near  the  surface.  It  is 
at  or  above  the  surface  on  swampy  ground,  and  many 
feet  below  the  surface  in  high  places.  High  ground 
needs  little  attention  so  far  as  drainage  is  concerned, 
as  the  water  which  falls  upon  it  either  soaks  in  or  runs 
rapidly  off  as  surface  water. 

Water  Level  Must  Be  Below  Surface  of  Soil. — 
Low  ground,  however,  does  need  attention.  Plants 
cannot  grow  without  air,  and  niuch  water  in  the  soil 
keeps  out  the  air.  The  level  of  the  underground  water 
must  therefore  be  below  the  depth  to  which  the  roots 
of  the  crop  ordinarily  penetrate  the  soil.  In  other 
words,  a  crop  will  not  do  well  on  a  field  where  the  free 
water  level  is  U)0  near  the  surface.  You  have  all  seen 
crops  "drowned  out,"  as  the  farmer  says.     H  you  dig 


64  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

a  post-hole  in  such  soil  it  will  soon  fill  with  water  to 
within  a  foot  or  so  from  the  top.  The  level  of  the 
water  in  this  hole  will  be  the  free  water  level,  and  if 
it  comes  very  near  the  surface  no  crop  can  be  expected 
to  do  well  there. 

Wet  Soils  Are  Cold  Soils. — In  wet  soils  a  large 


A  PIECE  OF  MARSHY  LAND  BEFORE  IT  WAS  DRAINED. 

amount  of  heat  is  used  in  evaporating  part  of  the 
water,  and  so  much  is  required  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  what  remains  that  these  soils  never  become 
warm.  Often  such  soils  are  sour,  and  cannot  become 
sweet  until  the  water  is  drained  off  and  the  heat  and 
air  let  in.     Sometimes  it  is  even  necessary  to  sow  lime 


DRAINING  THE  SOIL 


65 


on  these  soils,  after  the  water  has  been  drained  off,  in 
order  to  sweeten  them. 

Drainage. — What  is  the  farmer  to  do  with  low,  wet 
ground  ?  Evidently  there  is  but  one  thing  to  do — drain 
off  the  water.  There  are  two  methods  of  draining  this 
water  off,  the  open  ditch  and  the  tile  drain.    To  begin 


9^.. 

k. 

r-'" 

-'^m 

mM 

••"^'^•" ' 


Tin:  sA.Mi:  iii:li)  aftku  r.i:i.\(;  tile  duainkd 


with,  the  land  may  be  so  low  and  Hat  that  no  kind  of 
drainage  is  possible.  This,  of  course,  may  be  deter- 
mined by  noting  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  nearest 
stream.  If  it  is  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface  of 
the  land  and  overflows  with  every  heavy  rain,  easy 
drainage  is  impossible.    But  if  the  surface  of  the  soil  is 


66  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE. 

a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  stream,  the  land  can  be 
easily  drained. 

Tiling. — It  is  conceded  that  the  tile  system  of  drain- 
age is  better  than  the  open  ditch,  though  it  requires 
more  labor  and  expense.  The  tiles  should  be  placed 
about  three  feet  below  the  surface,  so  that  the  ground 
water  level  will  be  lowered  to  this  point  and  the  ground 
cultivated  without  interfering  with  the  tiles.  The  size 
of  the  tiles  to  be  used,  and  the  distance  apart  which 
they  should  be  placed,  depends  upon  the  slope  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  An  experienced  drainage  engi- 
neer should  have  charge  of  the  work. 

Open  Ditches. — Open  ditches  may  prove  quite  as 
effectual  in  draining  the  land,  if  they  be  deep  enough 
and  not  too  far  apart.  Of  course  they  must  be  kept 
cleaned  out.  The  greatest  objection  to  open  ditches  is 
that  they  cut  up  the  land  and  thus  interfere  with  culti- 
vation. They  can  best  be  used  in  draining  out  sloughs 
and  narrow,  swampy  places.  Many  acres  of  low  land, 
now  uncultivated,  might  be  made  very  productive  if 
properly  drained. 

Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.    40. — Farm  Drainage. 

No.  187. — Drainage  of  Farm  Lands. 
Table  VIII. 

Table  showing  average  cost  of  drainage  tile  in  large  quan- 
tities: 

3  in.  tile  cost  about  3c  each. 

4  in.  tile  cost  about  4c  each. 

5  in.  tile  cost  about  5c  each. 

6  in.  tile  cost  about  6c  each. 
All  sizes  are  12  inches  in  length. 


DRAIhWNG  THE  SOIL  67 

Problems. 

1.  A  farmer  owns  a  plat  of  low  ground  80  rods 
long  and  50  rods  wide ;  how  many  acres  in  this  plat  ? 

2.  A  creek  runs  lengthwise  through  this  land.  The 
level  of  the  water  in  the  creek  is  4  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  land.     Can  it  be  drained? 

3.  Will  the  creek  answer  as  a  channel  to  carry  off 
the  water  from  the  tiles? 

4.  Suppose  he  puts  the  tiles  crosswise  of  the  field, 
4  rods  apart,  so  that  they  open  into  the  creek.  How 
many  rods  of  tiling  will  it  take?  How  many  feet? 
How  many  4  in.  tiles? 

5.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  these  tiles  according  to 
the  above  table  ? 

6.  What  will  it  cost  to  dig  the  ditches  and  lay  the 
tiles  at  20  cents  per  rod  ? 

7.  What  will  be  the  entire  cost  if  4  in.  tiles  are 
used  ?     3  in.  ?    6  in.  ? 

8.  What  will  be  the  cost  per  acre  for  each  kind  of 
tile? 

9.  Suppose  open  ditches  costing  twenty  cents  per 
rod  will  answer.  How  much  more  will  the  tile  system 
cost  than  the  open  ditches  ? 

10.  If  the  farmer  is  able  to  grow  only  ij^  tons  of 
marsh  hay  worth  $4  per  ton  on  this  land  before  drain- 
ing and  can  grow  60  bu.  of  corn  worth  $0.35  per  bu. 
after  draining,  what  is  the  increase  in  the  value  of  the 
crop  due  to  drainage  ? 

11.  In  how  many  years  will  this  increase  alone  pay 


68  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

for  the  open  ditch?    For  the  4  in.  tile  system?     For 
the  6  in.  tile  system  ? 

12.  Suppose  the  open  ditch  costs  5  cents  per  rod 
annually  for  repairs.  In  how  many  years  will  the  open 
ditch  cost  as  much  as  the  tile  drain  ? 

13.  If  the  above  is  a  true  example  of  the  cost  and 
value  of  drainage,  does  it  pay  ? 

14.  What  would  it  cost  to  dig  an  open  ditch  on 
each  side  of  a  slough  10  rods  wide  and  100  rods  long 
at  $0.25  per  rod? 

15.  Is  there  a  place  on  your  farm  that  needs  drain- 
ing? Measure  it.  Draw  a  plan  for  ditches  and  esti- 
mate the  cost  of  both  systems. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  CROP 


Effect  of  Unwise  Cropping. — Every  farmer  desires 
to  be  prosperous.  He  tries  to  raise  those  crops  which 
will  give  him  the  largest  returns  in  money ;  but  often, 
in  his  anxiety  to  do  this,  he  takes  too  little  heed  for 
the  future.  He  reasons  thus:  '*If  tobacco  is  a  high 
price  and  my  soil  will  raise  good  tobacco,  then  tobacco 
is  the  crop  for  me  to  raise."  So,  year  after  year,  he 
plants  tobacco,  until  he  finds  that  his  soil  will  no  longer 
raise  a  good  crop  of  tobacco  or  anything  else.  Plainly, 
he  has  made  a  great  mistake.    What  is  the  matter? 

Tobacco  Exhausts  the  Soil. — The  explanation  is  not 
hard  to  find.  Tobacco  is  very  hard  on  the  soil,  as  you 
will  readily  see  by  consulting  the  table  showing  the 
amount  of  fertilizing  substances  in  farm  crops.  Be- 
sides, tobacco  requires  the  same  kind  of  food,  year 
after  year,  and  unless  the  farmer  has  made  a  careful 
study  of  this  crop,  and  of  the  fertilizers  needed  for  its 
proper  growth,  his  soil  soon  becomes  exhausted  of 
some  of  its  fertilizing  substances.  The  same  is  true 
of  wheat,  or  corn,  or  any  other  crop,  grown  year  after 
year  on  the  same  piece  of  ground.     So  the  farmer 


70  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

needs  to  consider  not  only  the  immediate  returns — 
that  is,  the  amount  of  money  he  will  get  from  his  crop 
this  year — but  the  effect  that  the  crop  will  have  upon 
the  soil. 

Crop  Rotation. — Good  farmers  have  devised  a  plan, 
known  as  "crop  rotation,"  whereby  they  are  able  to 
secure  the  greatest  possible  returns  from  the  farm  with 
the  least  possible  loss  to  the  soil.  This  plan  consists  in 
growing  one  kind  of  crop  on  a  certain  piece  of  ground 
this  year,  another  kind  of  crop  requiring  different  food 
materials  next  year,  still  another  the  year  following, 
and  so  on. 

One  Plan  of  Crop  Rotation. — Now,  what  should 
form  the  basis  of  a  good  crop  rotation?  Let  us  see. 
Suppose  tobacco  is  to  be  grown  this  year.  It  is  a 
heavy  feeder  and  therefore  hard  on  the  soil.  A  large 
amount  of  soil  matter  will  be  removed  with  the  crop. 
This  should  be  restored.  But  how  ?  With  barnyard 
manure.  Instead  of  planting  tobacco  next  year,  on 
this  piece  of  land,  better  try  some  light  feeder.  If  the 
soil  is  not  too  rich,  oats  will  be  a  good  crop  to  follow 
the  tobacco.  Clover  can  be  sown  with  the  oats  and 
add  more  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  A  crop  of  clover  hay 
can  be  taken  off  the  third  year  and  the  second  crop 
plowed  under.  The  soil  is  in  good  condition  again, 
and  wheat  or  corn  can  be  grown.  Corn  will  afford  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  a  thorough  cultivation  of  the 
soil.  A  crop  of  peas  may  follow  the  corn.  As  you  will 
remember,  peas  belong  to  the  legume  family  and  re- 
store nitrogen  to  the  soil  in  the  same  way  that  clover 


THE  CROP 


71 


does.  If  the  peas  are  sold  to  the  canning  factory,  the 
vines  should  be  brought  back  onto  the  land  and  plowed 
under  to  enrich  the  soil.  It  is  now  in  good  condition 
for  a  second  crop  of  tobacco. 


HARVEST  TIME. 

Results  of  Rotation. — Now  let  us  see  what  has  been 
done:  A  five  years'  rotation  has  been  planned,  con- 
sisting of  tobacco,  oats,  clover,  corn  and  peas,  return- 
ing to  tobacco  again  the  sixth  year.  During  that  five 
years  it  has  been  necessary  to  manure  this  piece  of  land 
but  once.    During  two  years  legumes  have  been  grown 


^2  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

and  plowed  under  to  enrich  the  soil.  This  manure  and 
these  legumes  have  doubtless  kept  up  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  The  farmer  has  had  an  opportunity  for  four 
years  to  manure  other  pieces  of  land.  At  the  same 
time  he  has  been  following  some  plan  of  rotation  on 
the  rest  of  his  farm.  Each  year  he  has  grown  tobacco, 
he  has  raised  corn  and  sold  his  hogs,  he  has  made 
hay  for  his  cattle,  and  he  has  sold  peas  to  the  canning 
factory.  He  lias  been  taking  in  money  all  the  time,  but 
he  has  not  greatly  exhausted  his  soil. 


VARIOUS   ROOT   SYSTEMS. 
T — Tobacco,    O — Oats,    CI — Clover,   B — Beets,    W — Wheat,    C— Corn, 
A— Alfalfa. 


Crop  Rotation  and  Length  of  Roots. — There  is 
still  another  feature  of  crop  rotation  worthy  of  study 
here.  It  is  the  different  depths  to  which  the  roots  of 
various  crops  penetrate.  In  the  first  place,  tobacco  is 
a  long-rooted  crop,  and  feeds  deep  down  in  the  soil. 
Oats,  which  follow,  are  short-rooted  and  feed  near 
the  surface.  Then  comes  clover,  whose  roots  penetrate 
several  feet,  bringing  food  matter  to  the  surface  from 


THE  CROP  73 

deep  down  in  the  soil.  When  this  crop  is  plowed 
under  it  furnishes  a  food  supply  for  the  corn  which 
follows  it.  Now,  if  oats  had  been  grown  on  this  soil 
year  after  year,  their  short  roots  would  soon  have 
exhausted  the  food  supply  near  the  surface.  This  diffi- 
culty has  been  avoided  by  the  rotation  of  crops.  Again, 
crop  rotation  affords  an  opportunity  for  cultivation 
which  destroys  weeds  and  increases  the  power  of  the 
soil  to  produce  the  desired  crop. 

Conditions  Determine  Kind  of  Rotation. — The  rota- 
tion given  in  this  chapter  is  only  a  "sample"  rotation, 
not  an  ''ideal"  one,  and  is  introduced  here  only  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration.  The  farmer  should  devise 
rotations  of  his  own,  suited  to  the  special  needs  of  his 
farm  and  to  the  market  for  his  products. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.  289. — Practices  in  Crop  Rotation. 

No.  320. — Relation  of  Sugar  Beets  to  General  Farming. 

Experimental  Study,  of  Boot  Systems. 

1.  Pull  or  dig  up  full-grown  stalks  of  oats,  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  corn,  tobacco,  clover,  alfalfa  and  other 
farm  crops.  Many  of  the  roots  will  break  off  in  the 
ground,  but  those  that  remain  will  be  sufficient  for 
comparison.  Which  of  these  penetrate  the  soil  the 
deepest?    Classify  them  in  the  order  of  length. 

2.  Bring  in  radishes,  turnips,  roots  of  oats,  corn, 
and  other  farm  crops.  Measure  their  length  and  count 
the  number  of  small  roots  on  each  of  these  plants. 


74  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Note  the  manner  in  which  these  roots  grow.  Which 
are  "fleshy"  and  good  for  food?  Which  are  unsuit- 
able for  food  because  they  are  ''fibrous"  ? 

3.  Pull  up  peas,  beans,  clover  and  alfalfa.  Exam- 
ine these  roots  for  little  tubercles,  like  tiny  potatoes, 
the  size  of  a  pinhead,  or  perhaps  a  little  larger.  You 
will  probably  find  them  on  all  of  these  plants.  These 
little  nodules  are  the  homes  of  tiny  germs  that  feed 
upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  The  plants  in  turn  feed 
upon  this  stored-up  nitrogen. 

Problems. 

1.  If  corn  is  planted  in  rows  four  feet  apart  each 
way,  how  many  hills  to  the  acre?  With  three  good 
ears  to  the  hill,  how  many  ears  to  the  acre? 

2.  If  it  takes  100  ears  to  make  a  bushel,  how  many 
bushels  to  the  acre? 

3.  Which  is  the  best  crop?  Five  stalks  to  the  hill 
that  bear  ears  requiring  200  to  make  a  bushel,  or  3 
stalks  to  the  hill  that  bear  ears  requiring  100  to  make  a 
bushel  ? 

4.  How  many  bushels  per  acre  is  one  crop  better 
than  the  other? 

5.  Suppose  a  ten-acre  field  produces  60  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre  the  first  year,  but  falls  off  5  bushels 
per  acre  yearly  when  corn  is  continually  grown  on  it, 
what  will  be  the  yield  the  fourth  year? 

6.  What  will  be  the  total  loss  in  the  four  years? 
With  corn  worth  $0.30  per  bushel,  what  is  the  money 
loss? 


THE  CROP  75 

7.  Suppose  this  loss  can  be  avoided  by  rotation  of 
crops.  What  is  saved  yearly,  per  acre,  on  this  basis 
from  rotation  of  crops  ? 

8.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  tobacco,  1,500 
lbs.,  at  $0.08  per  lb.? 

9.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  oats,  60  bu.,  at 
$0.30  per  bu.  ? 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  clover,  3  tons, 
at  $6  per  ton  ? 

11.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  corn,  50  bu., 
at  $0.40  per  bu.  ? 

12.  What  is  the  value  of  one  acre  of  peas,  20  bu., 
at  $1.50  per  bu.? 

13.  You  v'ill  observe  that  the  above  problems  are 
based  on  the  crop  rotation  of  the  last  chapter.  What 
is  the  entire  value  of  the  five  years'  crop? 

14.  What  is  the  avera.s^e  yearly  value  of  the  crop? 

15.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  similar  problems. 
Number  of  acres  of  different  crops  raised  on  the  farm 
at  home,  yield  per  acre,  price  per  bushel,  ton,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XI 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  THAT  INJURE  THE  CROPS 

Insects  and  Plant  Diseases. — The  farmer  may  pre- 
pare the  soil  ever  so  well,  he  may  fertilize  with  the 
greatest  of  care,  he  may  cultivate  thoroughly,  the 
weather  conditions  may  be  favorable,  and  yet  he  may 
lose  all  or  a  portion  of  his  crop  through  the  attacks 
of  insects  or  the  ravages  of  plant  diseases. 

Every  child  has  seen  potato  bugs  at  work  and  knows 
full  well  the  damage  they  will  do  in  a  short  space  of 
time.  If  they  are  not  destroyed  the  crop  of  potatoes 
will  be.  However,  the  farmer  has  learned  how  to  fight 
this  pest  successfully.  But  there  are  many  other  in- 
sects injurious  to  the  crop  which  the  average  farmer 
has  not  yet  learned  how  to  fight,  and  he  has  paid  but 
little  attention  to  plant  diseases.  It  is  not  within  the 
province  of  this  book  to  deal  with  these  subjects  in 
detail,  but  there  are  a  few  general  principles  which  may 
be  laid  down  here,  and  which  will  prove' of  value  in 
the  war  that  the  farmer  must  continually  wage  against 
plant  diseases  and  insect  pests. 

It  is  necessary  for  us  to  know  something  of  the  life 
history  of  the  insects  which  we  fight — when  they  lay 


INSECTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES  ^^ 

their  eggs,  where  they  lay  them,  when  the  eggs  hatch, 
and  the  Hke. 

Paris  of  an  Insect. — Insects  are  so  called  because 
they  are  ''in  sections."  They  have  a  head  provided 
with  a  pair  of  feelers,  a  pair  of  strong  jaws  or  a  suck- 
ing tubej  a  body  to  which  are  attached  three  pairs  of 
legs,  usually  two  pairs  of  wings,  and  an  abdomen. 
The  abdomen  is  the  back  portion  of  the  body  made  up 
of  several  ring-like  sections  and  capable  of  holding  a 
large  amount  of  food.  They  breathe  through  little 
holes  in  their  sides. 


thp:  four  stages  of  insect  growth. 

Eggs    on    leaf,    caterpillar,    chrysalis    or    resting    stage,    full    grown 
insect. 

The  Life  of  an  Insect. — There  are  ordinarily  four 
stages  of  insect  growth — the  tg^  stage,  the  "grub"  or 
caterpillar  stage,  the  resting  stage  and  the  full  grown 
insect.  The  ngg  is  laid  by  a  full-grown  insect  in  the 
ground,  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  in  rotten  wood,  on  the 
bark  of  trees,  or  even  in  the  blossoms  of  plants,  or  in 
fruits.     This  egg  hatches  into  what  we  usually  call  a 


78  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

grub  or  worm.  The  grub  is  a  great  eater  and  grows 
very  rapidly,  as  those  of  you  who  have  watched  the 
young  potato  bugs  grow  can  testify.  It  then  hides 
itself  somewhere  and  goes  into  the  resting  state,  the 
pupa,  from  which  it  emerges  a  full-grown  insect, 
ready  to  lay  eggs  and  repeat  this  cycle.  Some  insects, 
as  the  potato  bug,  have  legs  in  the  "grub"  stage,  and 
others,  like  the  grasshopper,  do  not  go  into  a  resting 
state  at  all  but  grow  their  wings  as  they  hop  about  in 
search  of  food. 

Leaf-Eating  and  Sap-Sucking  Insects. — For  our 
convenience  we  will  divide  insects  into  two  classes — 
one  class  that  eats  the  leaves  and  another  class  the 
members  of  which  are  too  small  to  eat  leaves  but  large 
enough  to  suck  the  sap  of  plants. 

How  to  Destroy  Insects. — Now,  what  can  the 
farmer  do  if  his  crop  is  attacked  by  insects?  If  he  can 
find  out  where  these  insects  lay  their  eggs  he  can  de- 
stroy the  eggs.  If  they  lay  them  on  weeds  and  rub- 
bish he  can  destroy  them  by  keeping  fence  rows  clean 
and  fields  free  from  weeds.  If  they  lay  them  in  the 
ground  in  the  fall  he  can  plow  the  ground  and  freeze 
them  out.  If  they  are  leaf-eating  insects  he  can  spray 
the  crop  with  water  containing  paris  green  and  poison 
their  food.  If  they  are  sap-sucking  insects,  like  plant 
lice,  he  can  spray  the  trees  or  plants  on  which  they 
live  with  a  mixture  of  kerosene  and  soap  suds,  which 
will  fill  up  the  little  breathing  holes  in  the  sides  of 
their  bodies  and  kill  them.  At  the  close  of  this  chapter 
will   be   found    formulae    for   spraying   mixtures    for 


INSECTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES  79 

both  these  kinds  of  insects.  Some  farmers  plant  a 
*'trap"  crop — that  is,  a  crop  eadier  than  the  regular 
one — upon  which  the  insects  light  to  deposit  their 
eggs.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  laid  the  crop  is  de- 
stroyed, or  else  it  is  poisoned  to  destroy  both  the  old 
insects  and  the  young  ones  when  they  hatch. 

Caution  in  Using  Poisons. — A  word  of  caution  in 
the  use  of  poisons  is  necessary  here.  Cases  are  on 
record  where  people  have  been  poisoned  with  paris 
green  intended  for  insects.  Of  course,  it  should  never 
be  applied  to  cabbage  or  celery  or  any  vegetable  that  is 
used  for  food.  Currants  have  sometimes  been  poisoned 
in  an  effort  to  kill  the  currant  worm.  In  no  case 
should  deadly  poison  be  used  on  fruit  trees  after  the 
fruit  has  begun  to  form. 

Other  Plant  Diseases. — It  is  often  convenient  for  the 
farmer  to  fight  other  enemies  of  his  crop,  known  as 
plant  diseases,  while  carrying  on  his  fight  against  in- 
sects, as  one  spraying  may  be  made  to  do  for  both. 

Rust,  blight,  smut,  rot  and  the  like  are  diseases 
which  afflict  the  plant.  They  are  caused  by  little,  dust- 
like particles,  called  spores,  that  float  around  in  the 
air  and  settle  on  healthy  plants.  Here  they  grow  and 
multiply  very  rapidly.  They  injure  the  plant  by  living 
upon  its  sap — in  much  the  same  way  that  lice  and  ticks 
suck  the  blood  of  cattle  and  sheep.  They  must  be 
destroyed  or  they  will  destroy  the  plant  on  which  they 
feed. 

As  soon  as  the  spores  make  their  appearance  in  the 
field  or  orchard  the  farmer  should  begin  his  fight.     If 


8o  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

it  is  blight,  the  affected  part  should  be  immediately  cut 
off  and  burned.  If  this  is  not  done  the  wind  will  cai;ry 
the  spores  to  the  other  trees,  and  soon  the  whole, 
orchard  will  be  affected.  The  other  trees  should  be 
sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  disease. 

To  Destroy  Oat  Smut. — For  some  years  past  oat 
smut  has  been  destroying  a  large  portion  of  the  crop 
all  over  the  United  States,  but  this  disease  is  now  un- 
der control,  as  a  way  to  kill  the  spores  has  been  discov- 
ered. The  treatment  consists  in  soaking  the  seed  for 
a  few  minutes  in  a  solution  of  formaldehyde,  and  then 
spreading  it  out  on  the  floor  to  dry  before  sowing. 
The  recipe  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 

Destruction  of  Spores. — So  it  is  with  all  plant  dis- 
eases— destroy  the  spores,  and  the  disease  is  destroyed. 
The  best  medicine  for  this  purpose  is  formaldehyde,  a 
substance  which  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store.  It 
will  destroy  the  spores  of  more  plant  diseases  than  any 
other  remedy  yet  discovered,  and  is  usually  applied  by 
soaking  the  seed  in  the  solution  before  planting. 

Excess  of  Insect  Poisons. — Care  must  be  taken  in 
applying  mixtures  for  both  insects  and  plant  diseases 
not  to  get  too  much  poison  on  the  plants,  as  the  crop 
itself  may  be  injured  thereby.  Paris  green  may  be 
sprinkled  on  potato  vines  with  an  old  pepper  box,  if 
care  is  taken  not  to  use  too  much.  It  should  be  dusted 
over  the  plants  as  one  walks  rapidly  along  the  row. 
Two  pounds  of  poison  is  ample  for  an  acre  of  pota- 
toes. 


INSECTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES  8i 

When  the  crop  is  troubled  by  both  insects  and  plant 
diseases  the  remedies  may  be  mixed  and  applied  at  a 
single  spraying-.  A  good  spraying  pump  costs  from 
two  dollars  up.  The  recipes  for  and  the  average  cost 
of  the  mixtures  are  given  below. 

Experimental  Study  of  Insects. 

Insects  may  be  captured  with  a  net  made  of  mos- 
quito bar  attached  to  a  hoop  at  the  end  of  a  long 
stick.  Before  examination  they  should  be  killed  in  a 
"cyanide  bottle."  This  bottle  is  prepared  as  follows: 
Into  a  large-mouthed  bottle,  provided  with  a  cork,  put 
a  small  piece  of  potassium  cyanide,  a  very  deadly 
poison.  Cover  this  poison  with  a  layer  of  plaster  of 
paris  and  allow  it  to  harden.  Always  keep  the  bottle 
tightly  corked.  Shake  the  live  insect  from  the  net  into 
this  bottle  and  it  will  soon  be  ready  for  examination. 

1.  Study  a  wasp,  a  bee,  or  a  grasshopper.  Note 
the  three  parts  of  its  body,  the  head,  the  thorax  or 
middle  section,  and  the  large  hind  section,  or  abdomen. 
Also  note  that  the  abdomen  is  made  up  of  smaller, 
ring-like  sections.  From  this  can  you  see  why  they 
are  called  insects?  Watch  the  abdomen  of  a  live  in- 
sect closely  and  see  it  expand  and  contract  as  the  in- 
sect breathes. 

2.  How  many  legs  has  an  insect?  Are  they  al- 
ways attached  to  the  same  part  of  the  body  ?  How  are 
the  legs  jointed? 

3.  Many  insects  are  wingless;  some  have  a  single 
pair  of  wings  and  others  have  two  pairs  of  wings. 


82  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Beetles  have  thick  heavy  wing  covers.  Examine  in- 
sects and  note  the  number  and  kind  of  wings  on  each 
species. 

4.  All  insects  have  antennae  or  ''feelers."  In  your 
study  of  insects  compare  their  antennae.  Are  they 
long  or  short?  smooth  or  feathered?  Of  what  use 
are  the  antennae? 

5.  Study  the  mouth  parts  of  different  insects  and 
try  to  determine  the  different  ways  in  which  they  get 
their  food.  The  butterfly  and  the  grasshopper  are 
good  examples. 

6.  Make  a  little  cage  and  put  into  it  a  live  cater- 
pillar with  plenty  of  green  leaves  of  the  kind  on  which 
it  feeds.  Watch  it  spin  its  cocoon  and  go  into  the  rest- 
ing stage.  Keep  it  where  you  can  observe  what  hap- 
pens later.  In  the  spring  collect  cocoons,  put  them 
into  your  cage  and  wait  for  the  moths  or  butterflies 
to  come  out. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.     38. — Spraying  for  Fruit  Diseases. 

No.     45. — Some  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grain. 

No,    75. — The  Grain  Smuts:    Cause  and  Prevention. 

No.    91. — Potato  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment. 

No.    99. — Three  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 

No.  127. — Important  Insecticides. 

No.  132. — The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Wheat. 

No.  146. — Insecticides  and  Fungicides. 

No.  171.— The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth. 

No.  172. — Scale  Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrus  Trees. 

No.  196. — The  Usefulness  of  the  Toad. 

No.  212. — The  Cotton  Bollworm. 


INSECTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES  83 

Spraying  Mixtures  for  Plant  Diseases. 

(Bordeaux  Mixture.) 

4  lbs.  unslacked  lime $0.04 

6  lbs.  copper  sulphate  at  5c 30 

Total   $0.34 

Dissolve  each  thoroughly  in  25  gallons  of  water.  When  both 
are  thoroughly  dissolved,  mix.     Use  wooden  vessels. 

For  Leaf -Eating  Insects. 

Yz  lb.  Paris  green  to  50  gallons  water.     Spray. 

Cost  $0.15 

For  Sap-Sucking  Insects. 

2  gallons  kerosene $0.25 

I  lb.  hard  soap  ( i  qt.  soft  soap) 10 

I  gallon   water 

Total  cost $0.35 

The  above  are  the  best  remedies  in  general  use.  The  first  two 
may  be  combined,  or  rather  the  poison  may  be  added  to  the  first 
mixture. 

FORMALDEHYDE   SOLUTION. 

For  Oat  and  Wheat  Smut  and  Potato  Scab. 

I  pint  (40  per  cent)  formaldehyde $0.50 

36  gallons  of  water 

Total    $0.50 

Put  seed  in  "gunny  sack,"  soak  in  this  solution  for  ten  minutes, 
and  spread  out  to  dry.  The  above  solution  is  sufficient  for  40 
bushels  of  seed. 

Problems. 

I.     Suppose  it  takes  200  gals.  Bordeaux  mixture  to 

spray  an  acre  of  potatoes.     What  is  the  cost  of  the 

mixture? 


84  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Suppose  it  takes  two  applications  to  cure  the 
blight  and  each  application  requires  a  day's  time, 
worth  $1.    What  is  the  cost  of  the  cure  ? 

3.  How  many  bushels  of  potatoes,  worth  25  cents, 
will  it  take  to  pay  the  cost  of  this  cure? 

4.  Suppose  two  fields  of  potatoes  of  an  acre  each 
owned  by  different  farmers.  One  farmer  sprays  to 
cure  the  blight  and  gets  188  bushels  of  potatoes  worth 
25  cents  per  bushel.  The  other  neglects  his  field  and 
gets  but  75  bushels.  What  is  the  difference  in  the 
value  of  the  two  crops  ? 

5.  What  did  it  cost  the  first  farmer  to  apply  the 
spray?  What  is  his  actual  gain  over  the  other  farmer? 
Did  it  pay  to  spray? 

6.  Suppose  it  takes  two  applications  of  two  pounds 
of  paris  green  each,  and  two  days'  time  at  $1  per  day 
to  destroy  the  bugs  on  an  acre  of  potatoes,  how  many 
bushels  of  potatoes  at  30  cents  will  it  take  to  pay  for 
the  treatment  ? 

7.  Suppose  the  yield  is  increased  from  50  bushels 
to  200  bushels  thereby,  with  potatoes  at  20  cents  per 
bushel  what  does  the  farmer  gain? 

8.  If  both  bugs  and  blight  attack  the  crop,  what 
is  to  be  done  ?  What  will  be  the  cost  of  both  remedies  ? 
What  will  be  saved  by  mixing  the  cures  ? 

9.  How  much  does  the  formaldehyde  solution  cost 
per  bushel  for  seed  oats? 

10.  If  three  bushels  are  sown  to  the  acre,  what 
does  this  solution  cost  per  acre? 

11.  Suppose  it  takes  a  day's  work,  worth  $1,  to 


INSECTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES  85 

treat  the  seed  for  twelve  acres,  what  is  the  total  cost 
of  the  treatment? 

12.  How  many  bushels  of  oats  at  30  cents  will  it 
take  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  treatment  ? 

13.  Suppose  the  treatment  increases  the  yield 
twenty  bushels  per  acre,  how  much  does  the  farmer 
gain  on  his  crop? 

14.  How  much  is  gained  per  acre  by  the  use  of  the 
treatment  ? 

15.  What  is  the  cost  per  acre  of  the  treatment? 
The  cost  of  the  treatment  for  a  forty-acre  field  ?  For 
a  twenty- four-acre  field? 

16.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  WEEDS 

The  Nature  of  Weeds. — The  Bible  provides  that 
man  shall  eat  bread  in  the  sweat  of  his  face.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  farmer's  life.  His  is  a  continual 
battle  against  the  enemies  of  his  crops.  He  must  work 
hard,  early  and  late,  to  combat  the  ravages  of  insect 
pests  and  plant  diseases,  but  harder  still  to  eradicate 
the  weeds. 

Any  plant  growing  where  the  farmer  does  not  want 
it  might  be  considered  a  weed.  Why  are  weeds  ob- 
jectionable? In  the  first  place,  they  rob  other  plants 
of  their  food.  Suppose  you  go  every  morning  to  feed 
the  chickens  and  as  soon  as  you  throw  down  the  grain 
for  them  a  great  flock  of  pigeons  from  a  neighboring 
farm  should  swoop  down  and  pick  up  half  of  it  before 
the  chickens  could  get  it,  would  you  not  say  to  that 
neighbor,  "If  you  don't  take  care  of  those  pigeons 
Ishair? 

Work  of  Weeds. — Weeds  rob  the  other  plants  of 
their  food  just  as  truly  and  just  as  effectually  as  the 
pigeons  rob  the  chickens  in  the  illustration  given  above. 
If  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  in  a  field  the  crop  is 


THE  FIGHT  AGAINST  WEEDS  87 

Starved  out.  They  rob  the  plants  of  moisture  as  well 
as  of  food.  In  the  second  place,  they  serve  as  a  breed- 
ing ground  for  insects,  as  many  insects  seem  to  prefer 
to  lay  their  eggs  on  weeds.  In  the  third  place,  they 
shade  small  plants  and  rob  them  of  much  needed  sun- 
light. These  are  the  principal  reasons  why  weeds 
should  be  destroyed. 

Classification  of  Weeds. — In  order  to  fight  weeds 
to  the  best  advantage  we  must  know  something  of 
their  life  history.  They  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes — annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 

Annuals. — Plants  that  go  to  seed  every  year  and 
then  die,  coming  up  from  the  seed  each  year,  are  called 
annuals.  Pigweed,  wild  mustard,  sweet  clover  and 
ragweed  belong  to  this  class.  It  is  only  necessary  to 
prevent  them  from  going  to  seed  to  destroy  them. 
This  class  of  weeds  is  the  easiest  one  to  get  rid  of. 

Biennials. — Plants  that  live  for  two  years  are  bi- 
ennials. They  grow  up  from  the  seed  one  year  and 
grow  a  heavy  root,  but  do  not  go  to  seed  that  year. 
The  next  year  they  come  up  from  the  root,  go  to  seed 
and  then  die.  If  we  pull  them  up  by  the  roots  the 
first  year,  or  keep  them  from  going  to  seed  the  second 
year,  we  can  easily  destroy  them.  Cutting  them  off 
and  not  allowing  them  to  go  to  seed  for  two  years  in 
succession  will  have  the  same  effect.  Mullein,  wild 
parsnip,  burdock  and  bull  thistle  belong  to  this  class. 

Perennials. — Plants  that  go  to  seed  every  year  but 
whose  roots  live  on  from  year  to  year  are  perennials, 
and  the  only  way  to  eradicate  them  is  to  destroy  them 


88  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

root  and  branch — not  an  easy  thing  to  do.  Perennials 
give  most  trouble  to  the  farmer.  To  this  class  belong 
the  large  number  of  "noxious"  weeds,  Canada  thistle, 
ox-eye  daisy,  couch  grass,  sorrel  and  common  dock. 
As  soon  as  any  of  the  above  make  their  appearance 
on  the  farm  the  farmer  should  dig  them  up  and  burn 
them.  If  they  are  allowed  to  spread  they  will  soon 
have  possession  of  the  farm.  The  writer  has  seen 
whole  plantations,  thousands  of  acres,  in  the  South 
surrendered  to  the  ox-eye  daisy.  When  weeds  have 
driven  the  farmer  off  the  land  is  rendered  valueless, 
as  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  subdue  them  if  they  once 
have  gained  control. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fanners*  Bulletins. 

No.    28.— Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 
No.  188. — Weeds  Used  in  Medicine. 

Extracts. 

No.  133. — Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers. 

Problems. 

1.  If  a  clean  field  produces  60  bu.  of  corn  per  acre 
and  a  weedy  one  only  35  bu.  per  acre,  what  is  the  loss 
caused  by  weeds  with  corn  at  35  cents  per  bushel? 

2.  What  would  be  the  loss  on  a  20-acre  field  at  the 
same  rate? 

3.  For  how  many  days'  labor  at  $1  per  day  will  an 
amount  of  money  equal  to  this  loss  pay? 

4.  Suppose  it  required  only  four  days'  work  to 


THE  FIGHT  AGAINST  WEEDS  89 

keep  an  acre  free  from  weeds,  what  would  be  the  gain 
per  acre? 

5.  What  would  be  the  gain  on  a  24-acre  field? 

6.  Is  the  quality  of  the  corn  from  a  weedy  field 
ever  so  good  as  that  from  a  clean  field  ?    Why  ? 

7.  Suppose  clean  oats  produce  65  bu.  per  acre  and 
weedy  oats  produce  only  48  bu.  per  acre,  with  oats  at 
30  cents  per  bushel  what  is  the  loss  from  weeds  ?  What 
is  the  loss  on  a  i6-acre  field? 

8.  Are  oats  grown  in  a  weedy  field  as  good  in 
quality  as  clean  grown  oats  ?    Explain. 

9.  Give  several  reasons  for  weedy  oats.  Can  weeds 
in  oats  be  easily  destroyed  after  the  oats  are  sown? 

10.  Will  crop  rotation  prevent  weeds  in  oats? 
What  is  a  good  crop  for  oats  to  follow  ?    Why  ? 

11.  A  yield  of  300  bu.  of  potatoes  per  acre  would 
be  an  excellent  crop.  The  land  would  need  to  be  well 
cultivated  and  kept  free  from  weeds  to  produce  this. 
Suppose  but  140  bu.  are  grown  instead,  what  is  the 
loss  from  lack  of  labor?  At  25  cents  per  bushel  what 
is  the  money  value  of  this  loss  ? 

12.  For  how  many  days*  labor  at  $1.25  per  day  will 
an  amount  of  money  equal  to  this  loss  pay? 

13.  Suppose  only  twelve  days'  extra  labor  were 
required  to  give  the  larger  yield,  how  much  would 
be  gained? 

14.  If  the  farmer  did  these  extra  twelve  days' 
work  himself,  what  would  he  get  per  day  for  his  time? 

15.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  from  their  own  experi- 
ence and  trom  home  for  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM 

Stock. — The  successful  farmer  avoids  ''scrub"  stock. 
He  has  learned  two  important  facts :  First,  that  it  pays 
to  take  good  care  of  his  stock,  and,  second,  that  it  costs 
no  more,  in  care  and  feed,  to  raise  a  good  animal  than 
to  raise  a  poor  one.  Now,  let  us  analyze  these  two 
propositions  and  see  how  a  thorough  understanding 
of  these  truths  affects  the  farmer's  success. 

Why  Animals  Need  Food. — As  will  be  more  fully 
discussed  in  the  next  chapter,  animals  must  be  fed  for 
several  reasons.  In  the  first  place  they  must  grow, 
and  the  food  that  they  eat  furnishes  the  material  for 
this  growth.  In  the  second  place  they  must  be  kept 
warm,  and  the  fuel  for  animal  heat  comes  from  their 
food.  Again,  if  some  special  product,  like  milk,  is  to 
be  produced;  this,  too,  must  come  from  the  food. 
Why  does  it  pay  to  take  good  care  of  stock  ? 

Feeding  Stock. — Care  is  here  meant  to  include  food, 
shelter  and  general  attention.  If  the  animal  is  to  grow 
rapidly  it  must  be  well  fed,  since  the  food  furnishes 
the  material  for  this  increase  in  weight.  Not  only 
this,  but  it  must  be  fed  regularly.  If  not,  its  digestive 
organs  become  deranged ;  that  is,  it  becomes  dyspeptic 
and  its  food  passes  off  without  being  properly  digested. 


THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM  91 

The  Shelter  of  Stock. — Stock  must  be  provided  with 
shelter  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  to  protect  them  from 
the  heat  and  storms  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 
If  their  stables  are  cold,  then  the  additional  heat  re- 
quired to  keep  them  warm  must  be  furnished  by  addi- 
tional food.  Animals,  like  persons,  are  very  sensitive 
to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  to  sleet  and  snow, 
and  cold  and  wind.  They  "  catch  cold,"  get  sick  and 
lose  flesh  in  consequence.  How  necessary,  then,  for 
the  farmer  to  provide  a  shed  for  the  cattle  to  run 
under  during  storms,  a  tight  board  fence  on  the  north 
and  west  sides  of  the  barnyard  to  break  the  wind,  and 
warm  stables  for  all  his  stock. 

General  Attention  to  Stock. — General  attention 
covers  that  watchful  care  so  necessary  to  successful 
stock  raising.  Bams  and  barnyards  must  be  kept 
clean,  stalls  bedded,  pure  water  provided,  stock  kept 
free  from  ticks  and  lice,  horses  curried,  their  feet  at- 
tended to,  the  health  of  all  animals  carefully  watched, 
diseased  ones  removed  and  shut  up  by  themselves; 
these,  all  these,  and  a  thousand  and  one  other  little 
things  constitute  the  general  attention  which  the  suc- 
cessful farmer  gives  to  his  stock. 

Effect  of  Lack  of  Care. — We  can  best  prove  that  it 
pays  by  imagining  the  result  of  a  lack  of  such  care. 
With  n^lect  more  food  is  required  to  make  the  ani- 
mals grow  and  more  food  needed  to  keep  them  warm. 
Neglected  animals  grow  slowly,  are  "stunted"  in 
growth,  finally  stop  growing  altogether,  and  some- 
times sicken  and  die.     Dirty  animals  are  unhealthy 


92  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

and  get  "scabby"  and  "lousy."  Unless  carefully  at- 
tended to,  horses  get  the  thrush  or  contracted  feet,  are 
"foundered"  and  ruined.  Cows  exposed  to  wet  and 
cold,  or  chased  by  dogs,  "shrink  in  milk."  All  these 
conditions  cause  great  loss  to  the  farmer.  No  one  can 
doubt  that  it  pays  to  take  good  care  of  the  stock. 

Advantages  of  Good  Stock. — Now  for  the  other 
proposition :  It  costs  no  more,  in  feed  and  care,  to 
raise  a  good  animal  than  it  does  to  raise  a  poor  one. 


FANCY  SHEEP. 


A  scrub  cow  takes  as  much  stable  room,  eats  as  much 
hay,  requires  as  much  pasture,  takes  as  much  time  to 
milk,  needs  as  much  general  attention,  and,  in  the  end, 
returns  about  half  as  much  product  to  the  farmer.  A 
"scrub"  colt  requires  all  that  a  blooded  colt  requires 
and  is  worth  about  half  as  much  on  the  market.  A 
"scrub"  sheep  is  no  better  than  a  "scrub"  cow.  She 
produces  about  half  as  much  wool  and  raises  a  "scrub" 
lamb  that  sells  for  about  half  what  a  good  one  brings. 


THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM 


93 


There  is  nothing  bad  enough  to  say  of  a  ''scrub"  hog. 
It  certainly  requires  as  much  care  as  a  genuine 
''porker."  What  does  it  bring  on  the  market?  Not 
half  what  a  well  bred  pig  of  the  same  age  will  bring. 

If  more  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  two  propositions 
stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  is  needed  it  will 
be  found  in  the  answers  to  the  practical  problems 
which  follow. 


WELL  BRED   PIGS. 


Fertiliser  in  Stock  Food. — One  thing  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  however.  Hay  and  grain  fed  to  stock 
are  not  entirely  wasted.  In  a  ton  of  hay  worth  $6 
there  is  at  least  $3  worth  of  manure,  if  it  is  carefully 
saved  and  returned  to  the  land.  But  $3  in  value  has 
actually  disappeared  when  the  hay  has  been  fed.  Ten 
dollars'  worth  of  oats,  or  corn,  or  barley,  fed  to  stock, 
will  give  in  return  $3.50  worth  of  manure.  Below  is 
given  a  table  showing  the  actual  cash  value  of  the  ma- 


94  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

nure  produced  by  different  farm  animals  during  the 
year  when  they  are  kept  in  stalls  and  the  manure  care- 
fully saved.  On  the  average  farm  at  least  two-thirds 
of  this  value  is  wasted.  Pupils  should  use  the  second 
table  for  ordinary  problems.  To  the  increase  in  the 
value  of  the  animal  produced  by  feeding  a  certain 
amount  of  feed  must  be  added  the  value  of  the  manure 
produced  by  the  animal  from  the  food  that  is  eaten. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.    41. — Fowls  :    Care  and  Feeding. 

No.     51. — Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

No.    64. — Ducks  and  Geese :    Breeds  and  Management. 

No.  100. — Hog  Raising  in  the  South. 

No.  141. — Poultry  Raising  on   the  Farm. 

No.  179. — Horseshoeing.  » 

No.  200. — Turkeys:    Breeds  and  Management. 

No.  205. — Pig  Management. 
Extracts. 

No.     15. — Some  Practical  Suggestions  for  the  Suppression  and 
Prevention  of  Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

Table  IX. 

Table  showing  value  of  manure,  per  head,  produced  annually 
by  farm  animals: 

Horse $2700 

Cow   1900 

Hog  12.00 

Sheep  2.00 

Table  X. 
Table  showing  value  of  manure,  per  animal,  saved  annually 
from  animals  by  the  average  farmer: 

Horse $10.00 

Cow  6.00 

Hog  400 

Sheep 75 


>       THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM  95 

Problems. 

1.  A  COW  requires  about  4  ft.  by  9  ft.  floor  space 
for  a  stall,  with  4  ft.  by  3  ft.  additional  for  a  manger. 
How  much  floor  space  will  be  required  for  20  cows? 

2.  Will  it  be  better  to  stand  the  cattle  in  one  long 
row,  or  in  two  rows  of  10  each? 

3.  If  in  two  rows,  would  you  have  them  face  each 
other  with  the  manger  between,  or  face  the  wall? 
Why? 

4.  What  will  be  the  dimensions  of  a  barn  for  20 
cows  in  two  rows  of  10  each,  using  the  floor  space 
given  in  the  first  problem? 

5.  Draw  a  plan  of  this  barn  with  cows  facing  each 
other.  With  the  cows  facing  the  wall.  What  are  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  plan  ? 

6.  How  many  feet  of  2-inch  plank  will  it  take  to 
lay  the  floor  in  this  barn?  Find  cost  of  same  at  $25 
per  thousand. 

7.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  a  cement  floor  for  same 
at  10  cents  per  sq.  ft.  ? 

8.  Will  "scrub"  cattle  require  the  same  room? 

Note:  In  the  following  examples  do  not  forget  to  add  the 
valtie  of  the  manure  produced  to  the  value  of  the  product: 

9.  If  a  cow  eats  3  tons  of  hay  worth  $6  per  ton, 
1,000  lbs.  of  ground  feed  worth  80  cents  per  cwt.,  and 
pasture  amounting  to  $5  in  a  year,  what  does  it  cost  a 
farmer  to  keep  a  cow?  Will  a  "scrub"  cow  cost  as 
much? 

10.  A  "scrub"  cow  will  give  15  lbs.  of  milk,  worth 


gS '  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

80  cents  per  cwt.,  daily  for  300  days  in  the  year,  and 
raise  a  calf  worth  $3.  What  is  the  farmer's  profit  on 
her? 

11.  A  Durham  cow  will  give  25  lbs.  of  milk  daily 
for  the  same  time  and  raise  a  calf  worth  $5.  What  is 
the  farmer's  profit  on  her  ? 

12.  How  much  more  does  he  make  on  the  Durham 
than  on  the  ''scrub"? 

13.  If  it  costs  2  tons  of  hay,  40  bu.  of  oats  and  $6 
worth  of  pasture  annually  to  raise  a  colt,  what  does  it 
cost  to  raise  a  horse  4  years  old  with  hay  at  $5  per  ton 
and  oats  at  30  cents  per  bu.  ? 

14.  A  ''scrub"  colt  will  bring  about  $80.  Has  the 
farmer  lost  or  gained,  and  how  much  ? 

15.  A  coach  horse  will  bring  $150  instead.  What 
has  the  farmer  gained  or  lost  on  this  colt?  Which  is 
the  more  profitable  animal? 

16.  If  it  takes  3  tons  of  hay  worth  $6  per  ton,  50 
bu.  of  oats  worth  25  cents  per  bu.,  and  $10  worth  of 
pasture  to  keep  10  sheep  for  a  year,  what  is  the  cost 
per  head  ? 

17.  If  one  "scrub"  sheep  will  shear  about  4  lbs. 
of  wool  worth  20  cents  per  lb.,  and  raise  a  lamb  that 
will  weigh  about  50  lbs.  and  bring  about  $3.50  per 
cwt.,  what  will  the  entire  flock  return  to  the  farmer? 
What  will  each  sheep  return?  Will  he  gain  or  lose, 
and  how  much  ? 

18.  If  of  a  good  breed,  each  sheep  will  shear  about 
8  lbs.  of  wool  and  raise  a  lamb  weighing  about  70  lbs., 


THE  STOCK  ON  THE  FARM  97 

worth  $5  per  cwt.,  what  will  this  flock  return?   What 
will  each  sheep  return? 

19.  How  much  per  head  will  be  the  farmer's  gain 
on  a  well-bred  flock? 

20.  If  it  takes  12  bu.  of  corn  worth  35  cents  per 
bu.  and  $3  worth  of  other  feed  to  raise  a  pig  until  it  is 
six  months  old,  what  is  the  cost  of  the  pig  to  the 
farmer? 

21.  If  a  "scrub,"  it  will  weigh  about  125  lbs.  at  six 
months  and  bring  $4  per  cwt.  Will  the  farmer  gain  or 
lose? 

22.  If  a  Poland-China,  it  will  weigh  about  200  lbs. 
and  be  worth  $4.75  per  cwt.  What  is  the  pig  worth? 
Will  the  farmer  gain  or  lose,  and  how  much? 

23.  How  much  more  will  the  blooded  pig  bring  on 
the  market  than  the  scrub? 

24.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  on  the  weight  of  ani- 
mals sold,  the  number  pounds  of  milk,  wool,  etc.,  pro- 
duced, the  price  of  feed  and  products  for  similar 
problems. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK 


Reasons  for  Feeding  Stock. — We  all  know  that 
farm  animals  should  be  fed,  well  fed,  but  we  do  not  all 
know  exactly  why  they  need  feeding.  Some  of  the 
reasons  were  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter.  Let  us 
name  them  all  now  : 

1.  To  repair  the  waste. 

2.  To  build  up  the  body. 

3.  To  keep  the  body  warm. 

4.  To  furnish  energy  for  the  body. 

5.  To  make  special  products — milk,  eggs,  wool  and 
the  like. 

Repair  of  the  Waste. — As  the  horse  works,  and  the 
sheep  or  cow  walks  about  in  search  of  food,  or  even  in 
the  ordinary  functions  of  life,  the  animal  body  is  con- 
tinually wearing  away.  What  child  has  not  noticed 
the  horses  grow  poor  during  the  "spring  work"  or  ob- 
served that  he  himself  has  lost  weight  after  great 
exertion!  This  loss  in  weight  is  the  zvaste  that  must 
be  repaired,  and  for  this  repair  food  is  necessary.  For 
this  very  reason  farmers  always  feed  their  horses  more 
when  they  work  them  hard. 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK  99 

l^VJiy  Growing  Animals  Need  Plenty  of  Food. — 
Growing  animals  must  not  only  keep  this  waste  re- 
paired, but  they  must  also  increase  in  weight.  For 
this  reason  they  need  more  food  in  proportion  to  their 
size.  First,  waste  must  be  repaired  before  the  animal 
can  grow;  then,  whatever  is  left  over,  goes  toward 
building  up  the  body. 

Food  Supply  and  Energy. — Work  horses  must  feel 
strong ;  that  is,  they  must  be  full  of  energy.  But  what 
is  energy  ?  Simply  this :  power  to  do  work.  A  healthy 
man  has  more  energy  than  a  healthy  boy.  He  has 
stronger  muscles.  He  has  greater  power  to  do  work 
and  can  endure  more  of  it.  So  the  horse  to  do  work 
must  have  muscular  energy.  His  muscles  are  formed 
from  the  food  that  he  eats. 

Food  Supply  and  Special  Products. — The  milk  cow 
must  have  more  food  than  the  one  that  gives  no  milk. 
She  must  have  food  to  build  up  her  body,  to  repair  the 
waste,  to  keep  her  warm,  to  furnish  her  with  energy, 
and,  besides  this,  she  must  have  additional  food  out  of 
which  to  make  milk.  Let  her  food  supply  decrease 
and  she  will  at  once  show  it  in  the  reduced  amount 
of  milk  that  she  gives.  You  have  all  noticed  this 
shrinkage  when  the  pastures  get  "short"  in  summer. 
So,  too,  the  sheep  must  have  extra  food  out  of  which 
to  make  wool,  and  the  hen  requires  special  food  from 
which  to  make  eggs. 

Kind  of  Food  Needed  Varies. — If  a  man  were  to 
start  a  shoe  factory  he  would  buy  leather,  pegs,  nails 
and  thread.    These  are  the  raw  materials  out  of  which 


100  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

he  makes  shoes.  If  he  were  to  start  a  chair  factory 
he  would  buy  lumber  instead.  That  is,  his  selection 
of  material  would  depend  upon  the  kind  of  product  he 
expected  to  manufacture.  It  is  just  the  same  in  the 
feeding  of  farm  animals.  If  milk  is  to  be  produced, 
then  foods  that  make  milk  must  be  fed.  If  eggs  are 
wanted,  hens  must  be  fed  egg-producing  foods.  If 
work  is  to  be  done,  then  foods  which  make  energy 
must  be  supplied.  The  horse  is  a  machine  to  do 
work,  the  hen  an  egg-making  machine,  the  cow  a  milk 
factory.  Different  foods  are  the  raw  materials;  eggs 
and  milk,  the  manufactured  products. 

Importance  of  Right  Selection  of  Foods. — But,  you 
say,  we  know  that  lumber  is  needed  to  make  chairs; 
leather,  nails  and  thread  necessary  in  the  manufacture 
of  shoes ;  but  we  don't  know  what  will  make  milk  and 
eggs.  Well,  you  have  grasped  at  the  question  that 
underlies  the  whole  system  of  feeding,  and  until  the 
farmer  determines  for  himself  the  best  and  most  eco- 
nomical food  to  be  used  in  order  to  produce  the  de- 
sired results  farming  will  not  pay  him  its  largest  re- 
turns. 

Classification  of  Foods. — Foods  are  conveniently  di- 
vided into  three  classes — fats,  protein  and  carbohy 
drates.     These  are  big  words,  but  they  are  easily  un- 
derstood. 

Fats. — Butter,  lard,  tallow,  and  all  kinds  of  oils 
come  under  the  head  of  fats. 

Protein. — The  white  of  an  tgg  is  almost  pure  pro- 
tein ;  the  sticky  part  of  flour  is  protein ;  the  scum  on  the 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK 


lOI 


top  of  boiled  milk  is  protein;  the  principal  part  of 
cheese,  the  curd,  is  protein;  lean  meat  is  composed 
largely  of  protein ;  glue  is  protein ;  the  hide,  hair,  wool 
and  feathers  of  animals  are  largely  protein.  You  all 
know  the  odor  of  burned  feathers;  any  kind  of  sub- 


A   PRIZE    PERCHERON. 


Stance  that  scorches  and  g^ves  ofif  that  odor  contains 
protein. 

Carbohydrates. — Starch,  sugar  and  vegetable  fiber 
are  called  carbohydrates.  In  a  certain  sense  fats,  too, 
are  carbohydrates,  but  they  are  usually  put  in  a  class 


I02  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

by  themselves.  When  carbohydrates  are  spoken  of  in 
this  book  fats  are  meant  to  be  included. 

Difference  Between  Protein  Foods  and  Carbo- 
hydrates.— Now,  the  great  difference  between  protein 
foods  and  the  carbohydrates  is  this :  Protein  contains 
nitrogen  and  the  carbohydrates  do  not.  Nitrogen,  as 
you  will  remember,  is  the  substance  taken  from  the  air 
by  the  bacteria  on  the  roots  of  the  legumes  and  added 
to  the  soil.  You  will  also  remember  it  as  the  principal 
one  of  the  three  plant  foods  that  become  exhausted 
from  the  soil. 

Balanced  Ration, — By  consulting  the  table  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter  you  will  readily  learn  the  amount 
of  protein  and  carbohydrates  in  the  different  feeding 
stuffs.  A  "balanced"  ration  is  one  in  which  there  is 
about  six  times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  protein.  A 
ration  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
is  called  a  "wide"  ration ;  one  containing  less  than  six 
times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  protein  is  called  a 
"narrow"  ration.  By  a  balanced  ration  we  mean  the 
best  ration  to  feed  under  ordinary  conditions.  For  dry 
feeds  the  combined  weight  of  both  the  protein  and  the 
carbohydrates  should  be  equal  to  at  least  one-half  the 
total  weight  of  the  ration. 

Different  Uses  of  Foods. — Foods  rich  in  protein  are 
bone  and  muscle-formers.  Those  rich  in  carbohydrates 
are  fat  formers.  Carbohydrates  keep  the  body  warm. 
If  muscle  is  to  be  built  up,  then  muscle-forming  foods 
should  be  fed.  Farmers  have  learned  that  corn  alone 
is  a  good  grain  for  horses  only  in  the  winter  time.  The 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK  103 

reason  is  plain.  Corn  is  rich  in  carbohydrates.  These 
supply  heat  and  produce  fat.  Oats  are  rich  in  protein, 
a  muscle-builder,  and  furnish  energy.  In  spring  time 
it  is  muscle  and  energy  that  is  wanted,  not  heat  and 
fat. 

Special  Foods  Needed. — Sheep  need  food  rich  in 
protein.  Why?  Wool  is  to  be  produced.  Wool  is  com- 
posed principally  of  protein.  Hens  are  expected  to 
lay  eggs.  What  should  they  be  fed?  Corn  produces 
fat.  A  strictly  corn  diet  should  therefore  be  avoided. 
Eggs  are  composed  largely  of  protein.  Feed  protein 
foods.  The  shells  are  composed  of  mineral  matter. 
Lime,  broken  or  ground  bone,  ashes  and  gravel  should 
always  be  where  the  hens  can  get  at  them.  In  gen- 
eral :  Nature  has  provided,  in  summer,  proper  foods 
for  most  farm  animals,  and  the  nearer  summer  condi- 
tions can  be  duplicated  the  greater  will  be  the  farmer's 
success. 

Special  Proportions. — Pigs  fed  exclusively  on  a 
corn  diet  sometimes  have  weak  bones.  Why?  Be- 
cause there  is  not  enough  mineral  matter  in  corn  out 
of  which  to  make  strong  bones.  Growing  pigs  should 
be  fed  protein  foods,  with  plenty  of  mineral  matter 
in  them  to  form  bone  and  muscle.  Later,  when  fatten- 
ing time  comes,  fat  producing  foods,  like  corn,  should 
be  fed.  In  most  foods  there  is  an  abundance  of  carbo- 
hydrates. The  chief  difficulty  will  l^e  to  provide  suf- 
ficient protein  to  bring  the  ratio  up  to  six  to  one ;  that 
is,  so  that  there  will  not  be  more  than  six  times  as 


I04  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

much  carbohydrates  as  there  is  protein  in  the  ration. 
In  other  words,  for  every  six  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
there  should  be  at  least  one  pound  of  protein.  For 
young  and  growing  animals  it  should  be  considerably 
more  than  that. 

As  has  been  stated,  fat  is  usually  put  in  a  class  by 
itself,  and  not  grouped  with  the  carbohydrates  as  it  is 
in  this  book.  This  is  one  reason :  One  pound  of  fat 
will  produce  about  2^4  times  as  much  heat  and  energy 
as  one  pound  of  carbohydrates,  so  that  one  pound  of 
fat  is  equal  to  2%.  pounds  of  carbohydrates  in  feeding 
value.  If  we  have  i  lb.  of  fat,  334  lbs.  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  I  lb.  of  protein  in  a  given  ration,  we  have 
a  ratio  of  6  to  i.  In  the  following  table  the  fat  has 
already  been  added  to  the  carbohydrates,  so  that,  in 
order  to  find  the  nutritive  ratio,  it  \^iill  only  be  neces- 
sary for  you  to  use  the  following  rule :  Divide  the 
total  arnoimt  of  carbohydrates  in  the  ration  by  the  total 
amount  of  protein. 

If  the  result  is  greater  than  6,  more  protein  should 
be  added.  This  ratio  is  generally  considered  the  best 
for  all  animals  except  those  that  are  fattening,  when  a 
larger  amount  of  cheaper  carbohydrates  can  be  fed 
with  profit.  Full  grown  animals  can  get  along  very 
well  on  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  protein,  while 
young,  growing  animals  require  a  larger  proportion 
than  this,  because  protein  is  a  bone  and  muscle  builder. 

Economy  in  Feeding. — The  great  problem  of  eco- 
nomical feeding  is  to  find  those  foods  that  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  results  with  the  least  possible  expense. 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK  105 

It  is  not  necessarily  the  cheapest  foods  that  will  do 
this. 

The  Use  of  Scales. — In  this  connection,  it  may  be 
well  to  call  attention  to  the  farm  scales,  something 
that  should  be  found  on  every  well-regulated  farm. 
The  farmer  nmy,  then,  from  time  to  time,  experiment 
with  different  feeds,  both  as  to  quantity  and  kind,  and 
by  frequent  weighings  of  the  animals  so  fed,  determine 
the  effect  of  such  feeding.  Besides,  scales  are  very 
handy  in  selling  produce,  weighing  milk  and  in  a  thou- 
sand and  one  other  ways.  They  are  comparatively  in- 
expensive, and  will,  with  proper  use,  pay  for  them- 
selves in  a  very  short  time. 

Experimental  Study  of  Foods. 

1.  Starch  and  sugar  are  pure  carbohydrates.  Get 
some  samples  of  these,  label  them  and  start  a  collec- 
tion of  carbohydrates.  Add  to  this  collection  samples 
of  foods  rich  in  sugar  and  starch.  Corn,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  mixed  hay,  silage,  and  all  kinds  of  straw  may 
be  classed  as  carbohydrate  foods.  Place  these  sam- 
ples in  bottles  and  label  them  properly. 

2.  To  test  seeds  for  starch,  pulverize  the  seeds,  boil 
them  in  water  for  some  time,  and  soak  a  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  in  the  water.  Take  out  the  cloth,  dry,  and 
iron  it.  Is  it  stiff  or  "starchy"?  If  so,  where  did  the 
starch  come  from  ? 

3.  Test  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  rye  for  starch.  Pul- 
verize a  few  seeds,  pour  over  them  a  little  boiling 
water,  let  stand  a  short  time,  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine. 


io6  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

If  the  seeds  contain  starch,  the  water  will  suddenly 
turn  blue  or  black.  This  is  a  very  delicate  and  pretty 
experiment. 

4.  Many  seeds  contain  sugar,  for  which  every  one 
knows  the  simplest  test.  To  make  the  test  sure,  mas- 
tication should  be  slow  and  thorough.  Even  a  slightly 
sweet  taste  indicates  the  presence  of  sugar.  Test 
wheat,  oats,  corn,  peas,  squash  seeds,  and  pumpkin 
seeds. 

5.  All  seeds  contain  some  protein.  Every  one  knows 
the  odor  of  burning  feathers.  This  disagreeable  odor 
is  caused  by  the  burning  of  the  protein  in  the  feather. 
Remove  the  germ  from  a  kernel  of  corn  and  scorch  it 
over  a  spirit  lamp  or  on  the  stove.  Does  it  give  off  an 
odor  like  that  of  burning  feathers  ?  If  so,  it  contains 
protein.     Test  other  seeds  for  protein. 

6.  Lean  meat,  the  white  of  tgg,  wheat  bran,  oats, 
peas,  middlings,  cheese,  malt  sprouts,  and  clover  hay 
are  all  rich  in  protein  and  may  be  properly  called  pro- 
tein foods.  Add  these  to  your  collection,  labeling  them 
properly.  To  preserve  the  meat,  eggs,  and  cheese 
they  should  be  placed  in  dilute  alcohol. 

7.  Nearly  all  small  seeds  contain  much  oil.  To  test 
for  oil,  crush  the  seeds  on  a  piece  of  clean,  white 
paper.  If  they  leave  a  grease  spot,  the  seeds  contain 
oil.  For  further  test,  crush  the  seeds  on  a  piece  of 
white  paper,  and  heat  gently  in  the  oven,  being  care- 
ful not  to  scorch  the  paper.  A  grease  spot  on  the 
paper  shows  oil.  Test  flax  seed,  wheat,  beans,  sun- 
flower seeds,  and  any  kind  of  nut  for  oil. 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK 


107 


Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.     22. — The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 
No.    36. — Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products. 
No.     49. — Sheep  Feeding. 
No.     58. — The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop. 
No.  170. — The  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 


Table  XI. 
Table  showing  digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs: 

POUNDS    PER   TON. 

Kind  of  Feed.  Protein.     Carbohydrates. 

Soy  beans 210  800 

Cow  peas 210  800 

Clover  hay 170  920 

Red  top  hay 95  980 

Mixed  hay 88  880 

Timothy   hay 56  920 

Corn   fodder 50  710 

Rape,   green 42  170 

Corn   silage 24  290 

Oat  straw 24  920 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  fresh 13  140 

Rye  straw 12  830 

Wheat   straw 8  740 

POUNDS    PER    HUNDREDWEIGHT. 

Kind  of  Feed,  Protein.     Carbohydrates. 

♦Cotton  seed  meal 40  40 

♦Linseed  meal 32  42 

♦Gluten  meal 25  60 

Malt    sprouts 18  46 

Wheat   bran 12  46 

Wheat  middling.s 12  58 

Brewer's  grains,  dry 10  50 

Whole   milk zVi  13 

Skim    milk 3  6 

'These  feeds  are  very  rich  in  fat  and  should  be  fed  sparingly. 


io8  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

POUNDS   PER  BUSHEL. 

Kind  of  Feed.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

Dry  peas lo  32 

Rye   5  39 

Barley  4  32 

Corn    31^  40 

Oats    3  19 

Table  Xn. 

Table  showing  approximate  amounts  of  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates required  daily  by  farm  animals  of  average  size: 

Animal.  Protein.     Carbohydrates. 

Dairy    cow 2  lbs.  12  lbs. 

Work    horse 2  lbs.  12  lbs. 

Calves  under  i  year i  lb.  6  lbs. 

Pigs,  growing ^  lb.  2^^  lbs. 

Lambs,  growing 1-5  lb.  i  lb. 

Note  :  This  amount  varies  with  the  size  and  age  of  the  animal. 
Fattening  stock  can  be  profitably  fed  a  greater  allowance  of 
carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  grain,  like  corn  and  barley. 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  protein  in  a  bushel  of  oats? 
With  oats  at  30  cents  per  bushel,  what  does  this  pro- 
tein cost  per  pound,  disregarding  the  carbohydrates  ? 

2.  How  many  pounds  protein  in  a  bushel  of  barley  ? 
With  barley  at  44  cents  per  bushel,  what  does  protein 
in  this  form  cost  per  pound? 

3.  Which  is  the  cheaper  feed  at  these  prices?  How 
much  ? 

4.  What  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  rye  at 
60  cents  per  bushel? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  corn  at 
35  cents  per  bushel? 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK  109 

6.  At  the  above  prices  which  is  the  cheapest  feed? 

7.  Which  is  probably  the  best  feed  for  fattening 
purposes?     Why? 

8.  Suppose  all  kinds  of  hay  sell  at  the  uniform  price 
of  $8  per  ton.  What  is  the  price  of  protein  per  pound 
in  each  of  the  four  kinds  of  hay  given  above? 

9.  Which  is  the  cheapest  feed? 

10.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  straw  to  feed,  and 
why?  How  do  we  find  the  "nutritive  ratio"?  What 
is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  clover  hay?  Is  it  a  balanced 
ration  ? 

11.  Find  the  nutritive  value  of  all  the  feeds  given 
in  the  tables. 

12.  Which  are  most  nearly  "perfect"  feeds — i.  e., 
which  have  a  ratio  of  about  6  to  i  ? 

13.  Which  are  the  poorest  feeds — i.  e.,  which  have 
the  lowest  ratio  of  protein? 

14.  Which  are  the  feeds  having  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  protein  ? 

15.  Are  any  of  the  feeds  given  in  the  table  so  poor 
that,  in  themselves,  they  are  practically  worthless? 
If  so,  name  them.  ^ 

Illustration.— One  ton  of  mixed  hay  contains  88  lbs.  protein 
and  880  lbs.  carbohydrates.  Its  ratio  is  i  to  10.  Let  us  mix  it 
with  some  other  feed  to  bring  the  ratio  up  to  about  i  to  6.  We 
shall  try  peas.  We  shall  feed  i  bu.  of  ground  peas  with  every 
hundred  lbs.  of  hay. 

Feed.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

100  lbs.  hay  contain 4.4  44 

60  lbs.  peas   contain 10.  32 

160  lbs.  mixed  contain 14.4  76 


no  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Dividing  weight  of  carbohydrates  by  that  of  protein  {y6  by 
14.4)  we  get  a  ratio  of  about  i  to  5.  We  have  more  protein 
than  we  need.    Let  us  try  again  with  >4  bu.  of  peas  instead. 

Feed.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

100  lbs.  hay  contain 4.4  44 

30  lbs.  peas  contain 5.  16 

130  lbs.  mixed  contain 9.4  60 

Again  dividing  (60  by  9.4)  we  get  6.3,  about  right,  and  a  much 
cheaper  feed.  Now,  how  much  of  this  ration  shall  we  feed  to  a 
dairy  cow?  The  table  shows  us  that  a  cow  needs  about  2  lbs. 
protein  daily,  so  this  will  be  about  enough  for  five  days.  One- 
fifth  of  each  feed  will  give  us  as  a  result  20  lbs.  of  hay  and  6  lbs. 
of  peas  for  the  daily  ration. 

16.  With  the  ration  given  in  the  illustration,  how 
long  will  a  ton  of  hay  last  a  cow  ? 

17.  How  many  btishels  of  ground  peas  will  be  re- 
quired in  the  same  time? 

18.  What  will  it  cost  to  feed  the  cow  for  this  time 
with  hay  at  $7  per  ton  and  peas  at  $1  per  bushel? 

19.  Suppose  she  gives  25  pounds  of  milk  daily  on 
this  ration.  With  milk  at  $1.20  per  cwt.,  what  is 
gained  ? 

20.  Make  a  ration  of  clover  hay  and  corn  in  the 
same  way  and  figure  its  cost. 

21.  Make  a  ration  of  oat  straw,  clover  hay,  and 
ground  peas. 

Experiment  until  you  get  about  the  right  ratio,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  use  more  grain  than  is  necessary. 

22.  Figure  its  cost  at  the  current  prices  of  feed. 

23.  How  long  will  your  ration  feed  a  work  horse? 
What  is  the  cost  of  this  feed  for  a  horse  for  one  day  ? 


FEEDING  THE  STOCK  in 

24.  Make  a  ration  of  oats,  hay  and  straw  for  work 
horses.  Add  a  Httle  cotton  seed  meal  to  supply  pro- 
tein. When  you  get  the  ration  ^'balanced"  figure  its 
cost.  You  may  have  to  try  several  times,  but  don't 
give  up.  Figure  its  daily  cost  per  horse  and  compare 
with  cost  in  last  problem. 

25.  Pupils  tell  price  of  feeds,  kinds  grown  on  farm 
at  home,  stock  to  be  fed,  etc.,  as  data  for  other  feeding 
problems. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE  THREE  C'S— COWS,  CORN  AND  CLOVER 

Diversified  Farming. — All  who  understand  the  con- 
ditions are  agreed  that  diversified  farming  will  yield 
the  largest  returns  with  least  waste  to  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.     But  what  is  meant  by  diversified  farming? 

When  a  farmer  grows  wheat  to  sell,  and  little  else, 
that  may  be  called  wheat  farming.  If  he  depends  upon 
tobacco  alone,  we  call  that  tobacco  farming.  If  he 
plants  his  entire  farm  to  corn  and  feeds  it  to  hogs  for 
the  market,  we  may  properly  call  that  kind  of  farming 
corn  and  hog  farming.  Whenever  he  engages  in  two 
or  more  kinds  of  farming  his  work  becomes  "diversi- 
fied." The  greater  the  number  of  different  things  he 
raises  the  greater  the  diversification. 

Clover. — But  we  have  agreed  that  it  Is  not  a  good 
thing  to  raise  grain  or  tobacco  exclusively,  for  the 
market.  We  have  learned  that  this  kind  of  farming 
soon  wears  out  the  soil,  and  does  not  pay  in  the  long 
run.  We  have  learned,  too,  that  milk  products  con- 
tain little  soil  matter  and  are  therefore  easy  on  the 
soil.  We  have  observed  that  the  animals  usually  sold 
off  the  farm  contain  but  small  quantities  of  soil  matter 
in  proportion  to  the  feed  that  they  consume.  We  now 
know  that  clover  feeds  upon  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 


THE  THREE  CS-COWS,  CORN  AND  CLOVER     113 

air,  and  thus  increases  the  store  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 
We  have  learned  that  nitrogen  is  the  principal  ingre- 
dient in  protein,  the  feed  most  sought  after  by  the  pro- 
gressive farmer.  From  an  examinatk)n  of  the  table, 
we  find  that  clover  hay  is  richer  in  protein  than  any 


cows  IN  A  CLOVER  FIELD. 

Other  kind  of  hay.  A  little  calculation  shows  us  that 
it  contains  alx)ut  twice  as  much  protein  as  redtop, 
three  times  as  much  as  timothy,  eight  times  as  much 
as  oat  straw,  fifteen  times  as  much  as  rye  straw,  and 
thirty  times  as  much  as  wheat  straw.  On  average 
land  a  larger  amount  of  clover,  or  some  other  legume 
adapted  to  the  soil,  can  be  grown  per  acre  than  of  any 
other  hay  crop,  and,  since  it  adds  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 
it  is  by  far  the  best  hay  crop  to  raise. 

Corn. — Another  examination  of  the  table  reveals 
the  fact  that  corn  is  one  of  the  richest  of  grains,  and 
since  corn  is  one  of  the  richest  of  fodders  in  feeding 


114  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

value,  and  the  yield  is  heavy,  corn  is  an  excellent  crop 
to  raise. 

Cows. — Cows  are  a  constant  source  of  income  to 
the  farmer,  and,  at  the  same  time,  they  supply  him 
with  the  cheapest  and  best  of  fertilizers.  You  will  re- 
member that  if  the  manure  from  a  single  cow  were 
carefully  saved  during  the  year  and  applied  to  the  soil 
its  value  as  fertilizer  would  be  nearly  $20,  besides  im- 
proving the  texture  of  the  soil  to  a  marked  degree. 

A  Good  Combination. — Cows,  corn  and  clover  are  a 
splendid  combination  for  other  reasons.  Corn  requires 
frequent  cultivation  and  the  soil  is  improved  thereby. 
Weeds  are  exterminated,  the  ground  is  plowed  deeper, 
and  the  manure  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil. 
Besides  being  an  excellent  feeding  stuff,  and  adding 
nitrogen  to  the  soil,  clover  is  a  splendid  crop  to  sow 
with  oats,  following  corn,  offering  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  rotation  of  crops,  the  advantages  of  which 
have  already  been  pointed  out. 

Other  Advantages  of  the  Three  C's. — With  cows, 
corn  and  clover,  the  raising  of  sheep  and  hogs  is  made 
possible  and  profitable.  The  cows  and  clover  furnish 
milk  and  pasture  for  the  growing  animals,  while  corn 
is  one  of  the  best  of  fat-producers.  Tobacco  raising 
can  also  be  engaged  in,  if  the  farmer  is  careful  not  to 
exhaust  the  fertility  of  his  soil  by  too  frequent  crop- 
ping with  tobacco.  Sugar  beets,  too,  are  a  source 
of  good  income  to  the  farmer,  and  if  the  factory  is  so 
located  that  the  pulp  may  be  had  for  feeding  purposes, 
or  for  manure,  they  also  can  be  grown  with  little  loss 


THE  THREE  CS— COWS,  CORN  AND  CLOVER    115 

to  the  soil.  Sugar  is  a  carbohydrate  and,  like  butter, 
it  is  formed  from  the  food  matter  which  the  plants 
get  from  the  air  and  the  water;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  beets  are  heavy  feeders  and,  if  the  return  of 
the  pulp  is  impossible,  they,  like  tobacco,  will  soon 
wear  out  the  soil. 

Kind  of  Farming  Depends  on  Local  Conditions. — 
The  reader  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking 


A   PRIZE   PACKAGE.* 

that  the  system  of  diversified  farming  outlined  here  is 
necessarily  the  best  system.  The  greatest  flexibility  is 
allowable,  depending  upon  the  location  of  the  farm, 
the  character  of  the  soil,  nearness  to  factories  and 
markets,  and  various  other  conditions.  But  it  is  easily 
seen  that  in  the  North  Central  States,  at  least,  cows, 
corn  and  clover  should  form  the  basis  of  any  system 
of  diversified  farming. 

•Thl8  prize  package  was  grown  by   Frank  McConnell,  a  member  of 
the  Boys'  Corn  Club,  of  Hamilton  County,   Indiana. 


ii6  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.  8i. — Corn  Culture  in  the  South. 

No.  199. — Corn  Growing. 

No.  106. — Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

No.  143. — Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle. 

Problems. 

1.  A  ration  for  cows  consists  of  one  ton  of  clover 
hay  with  10  bushels  each  of  ground  corn  and  oats. 
How  long  will  this  feed  a  cow,  feeding  two  pounds  of 
protein  daily? 

2.  What  is  the  total  and  daily  cost  of  this  ration 
with  hay  at  $7,  corn  at  40  cents  and  oats  at  30  cents  ? 

3.  What  will  it  cost  to  keep  a  herd  of  12  cows  for 
200  days  on  this  ration? 

4.  On  another  farm,  timothy  hay,  oat  straw,  bran 
and  oats  are  mixed  in  the  following  proportions :  One 
ton  each  of  hay  and  straw,  20  bushels  of  oats  and  1,000 
pounds  of  bran.     Is  this  a  balanced  ration? 

5.  How  long  will  this  ration  keep  a  cow?  A  herd 
of  15  cows? 

6.  With  hay  worth  $7,  oats  30  cents,  straw  $4 
and  bran  80  cents  per  cwt.,  what  is  the  total  cost  of 
this  ration?    The  cost  per  cow,  per  day? 

7.  What  is  the  cost  of  feeding  a  herd  of  12  cows 
for  200  days  on  this  ration? 

8.  Compare  the  rations  in  problems  i  and  4. 
Which  costs  the  more?  Which  is  the  nearer  to  a  bal- 
anced ration?  Which  is  likely  to  produce  the  better 
results  in  feeding? 

9.  Suppose  20  pounds  of  each  ration  to  be  the  daily 


THE  THREE  CS— COWS,  CORN  AND  CLOVER     117 

allowance  for  each  cow.    How  long  would  each  ration 
last  a  cow  ?    What  would  be  the  daily  cost  ? 

10.  Which  is  the  cheaper  ration  under  these  con- 
ditions? 

11.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results  a  cow  should  be  fed  about  2  pounds 
of  protein  daily.  How  much  does  she  get  with  each 
ration,  if  fed  20  pounds  of  feed  per  day? 

12.  Disregarding  the  value  of  the  carbohydrates, 
what  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  protein  in  each 
ration  ? 

13.  A  lack  of  protein  means  a  smaller  quantity  of 
milk.  Suppose  cows  fed  on  20  pounds  of  the  clover- 
corn-oats  ration  gave  20  pounds  of  milk  daily,  while 
those  fed  on  the  hay-straw-oats-bran  ration  gave  but 
15  pounds  of  milk  daily.  With  milk  at  80  cents  per 
cwt.,  what  is  the  gain  by  using  the  first  ration? 

14.  Find  the  cost  of  each  ration  for  a  herd  of  10 
cows  for  one  month.     One  day. 

15.  Now  determine  whether  the  cheaper  ration 
is  the  more  economical. 

16.  Which  is  the  better  ration  to  feed  under  the 
above  conditions? 

17.  Make  rations  with  different  kinds  of  feeds, 
and  figure  the  cost  of  the  protein  therein. 

18.  When  you  have  finished,  compare  results  and 
note  that  cows,  corn  and  clover  seem  to  go  well  to- 
gether and  give  the  best  results. 

19.  Pupils  may  bring  data  from  home  for  similar 
problems. 


CHAPTER   XVI 


THE  DAIRY 


The  Products  of  the  Dairy. — Milk,  butter  and  cheese 
are  the  products  of  the  dairy.  Whether  the  farmer 
should  sell  his  milk,  or  make  it  into  butter  or  cheese, 
depends  upon  nearness  to  factories  and  markets,  the 
relative  price  of  milk  products,  and  other  local  condi- 
tions. It  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  that  the 
sale  of  milk  to  consumers  takes  from  the  farm  all  the 
soil  elements  found  in  whole  milk.  The  sale  of 
cheese  returns  a  portion  of  soil  fertility  with  the  whey, 
while  the  sale  of  butter  removes  practically  nothing 
of  a  soil  nature.  The  milk  required  to  produce  a  ton 
of  butter  contains  about  450  pounds  of  fertilizing  sub- 
stances; the  cheese  made  from  the  same  amount  of 
milk  contains  about  half  as  much  of  such  substances, 
and  the  butter  that  this  milk  will  produce  contains  less 
than  five  pounds  of  soil  fertility.  The  reason  is  plain. 
Butter-fat  is  a  carbohydrate,  and  carbohydrates,  you 
will  remember,  come  from  the  air  and  the  water,  not 
from  the  soil.  Hence,  with  milk  at  the  same  price  per 
hundred  at  both  butter  and  cheese  factories,  it  is  far 
better  to  make  butter  than  cheese  for  the  market. 


THE  DAIRY  119 

Again,  when  butter  is  made,  the  skim  milk  is  available 
to  feed  on  the  farm.  Whey  is  of  much  less  feeding 
value. 

The  Milk  Separator. — The  use  of  the  milk  separator 
is  increasing.  This  machine  is  a  great  time-saver. 
The  skim  milk  may  be  fed  warm  and  sweet,  soon  after 
being  drawn  from  the  cow.  Only  the  cream  need  be 
hauled  to  the  factory,  and  that  but  two  or  three  times 
a  week. 


^^^^^^^^^ 

S 

■■ 

^- 

"¥'  ' 

^^^^^^H 

■i 

mm 

^^j^^^Kt 

JERSEY  cow. 

Cleanliness  in  the  Dairy. — Cleanliness  is  the  watch- 
word of  the  dairy.  This  cannot  be  too  strongly  stated. 
Good  milk,  pure  milk,  sweet  milk  is  essential,  if  good 
butter  and  cheese,  capable  of  commanding  the  highest 
market  prices,  are  to  be  made.  Milk  and  milk  prod- 
ucts are  spoiled  by  bad  flavors  and  bad  odors.  Bad 
flavors  and  bad  odors  in  milk  are  caused  by  the  cows' 
eating  improper  food  and  drinking  impure  water,  and 
by  uncleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  dairyman  in  the 


I20  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

c^re  of  the  milk.  Milk  cows  should  not  be  allowed  to 
drink  stagnant  or  muddy  water,  or  to  eat  "tainted" 
food,  as  musty  hay,  cabbage,  rape,  garlic,  wild  onions, 
or  ragweed.  These  will  certainly  impart  a  bad  odor 
and  a  bad  flavor  to  the  milk,  which  the  most  careful 
handling  will  not  remove. 

Bad  Odors  in  Milk. — In  the  second  place,  milk  is  a 
very  great  absorbent,  and  should  never  be  allowed  to 


IIOLSTEIN  FRIESIAN   COW. 

Stand  around  the  barn,  or  in  any  other  place  where  the 
air  is  filled  with  bad  odors. 

Bacteria  in  Milk. — But  the  most  fruitful  source  of 
bad  milk  is  uncleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  dairyman 
in  the  care  of  the  cow,  and  of  the  milking  utensils. 
Milk  should  be  kept  pure  and  sweet.  Sour  milk,  or 
bad  milk,  is  caused  by  tiny  bacteria,  too  small  to  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye ;  in  fact,  so  small  that  they  can 


THE  DAIRY 


121 


only  be  seen  with  the  aid  of  the  strongest  microscopes. 
Under  favorable  conditions  these  bacteria  increase  in 
numbers  very  rapidly.  They  seem  to  thrive  best  in 
warm,  damp  weather.  They  live  everyw^here — on  the 
hay,  in  the  bedding,  on  the  clothes  and  hands  of  the 
milker,  on  the  cow's  hair,  in  the  milk  cans  and  pails, 
and  in  the  air.     New  milk,  freshly  drawn  from  the 


RED  POLLED  COW. 


cow,  contains  none  of  these  bacteria,  but  they  soon 
get  into  it  and  begin  at  once  their  rapid  multiplication. 
When  they  have  increased  sufficiently  in  numbers,  the 
milk  begins  to  smell  and  taste  sour  and  "bad."  Only 
care  and  cleanliness  will  prevent  these  bacteria  from 
getting  into  the  milk.  If  the  bacteria  are  kept  out, 
the  milk  will  keep  sweet  for  a  long  time.    Heating  it 


122 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


to  the  temperature  of  150  degrees  kills  these  germs, 
and  is  one  common  way  of  keeping  milk  sweet. 

Necessary  Precautions. — The  milker  should  see  to 
it  that  his  hands  are  clean.     Before  sitting  down  to 


Closed. 
A  BABCOCK  TESTER. 


A  CREAM  SEPARATOR. 


milk  he  should  carefully  brush  from  the  cow  all  dust, 
dirt,  dandruff  and  loose  hair  likely  to  fall  into  the 
pail.  He  should  have  his  milking  clothes  frequently 
washed  and  scalded  to  destroy  the  bacteria  thereon, 
and  he  should  remove  the  milk  to  a  clean  place,  where 
the  air  is  pure  and  free  from  bacteria,  as  soon  as  he 


THE  DAIRY 


123 


possibly  can.  Aerating  the  milk — that  is,  allowing  it 
to  drain  slowly  through  a  strainer  placed  several  feet 
above  the  can,  where  pure  air  can  blow  through  it  as 
it  falls — will  do  much  to  remove  any  bad  odors  it  may 
already  contain.  Pails  and  cans  should  be  kept  scru- 
pulously clean.  They  should  be  rinsed  with  boiling 
water  after  each  milking  to  kill  all  bacteria  that  may 


A   MODEL   cow    BARN. 
(Edgewood  Farm.) 


adhere  to  them.  If  little  particles  of  milk  are  allowed 
to  stick  to  the  rough  places  in  the  cans  and  pails,  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  milk  sweet  in  them,  because  the 
bacteria  live  and  multiply  in  these  particles.  As  soon 
as  pure  milk  is  placed  in  such  utensils,  these  germs  at 
once  begin  their  rapid  increase,  and  the  milk  spoils 
in  a  few  hours.     The  whole  secret  of  keeping  milk 


124  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

sweet   lies    in   preventing    the    bacteria    from   getting 
into  it. 

Selection  of  the  Herd. — Next  in  importance  to  the 
care  of  the  milk  comes  the  selection  of  the  herd.  Since 
most  creameries  and  cheese  factories  now  pay  by  the 
test — that  is,  pay  for  the  amount  of  butter-fat  that 
the  milk  contains — it  is  important  to  the  dairyman  that 
his  milk  tests  well,  and  that  his  cows  give  a  reasonably 
large  flow  of  milk.  In  general,  no  cow  is  profitable  to 
the  dairyman  whose  milk  tests  much  less  than  3  per 
cent  of  butter-fat.  Neither  is  one  which  gives  less 
than  twelve  pounds  of  milk  daily,  no  matter  how  rich 
it  is.  Every  farmer  should  own  a  small  Babcock  tester 
and  test  every  cow  in  his  herd.  Such  a  tester,  with 
directions  and  complete  outfit  for  testing  milk,  can  be 
bought  for  six  or  seven  dollars.  Each  cow  in  the  herd 
should  be  tested,  her  milk  carefully  weighed  and  her 
dairy  value  figured  out.  All  unprofitable  cows  should 
be  disposed  of.  The  best  cows  in  the  herd  may  then 
be  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  In  this  way  the  herd 
will  be  greatly  improved  and  dairying  made  much  more 
profitable. 

Experimental  Study  of  Milk. 

In  all  comparisons  of  milk,  samples  should  be  taken 
under  the  same  conditions  and  set  at  exactly  the  same 
depth.  Test  tubes  are  most  convenient  for  experi- 
ments with  milk.  If  bottles  are  used  they  should  be 
tall  and  slender,  and  as  nearly  the  same  size  as  pos- 
sible.   Sample  bottles  should  never  be  filled  above  the 


THE  DAIRY  125 

point  where  the  bottle  begins  to  narrow  towards  the 
neck. 

1.  Compare  samples  of  milk  from  different  cows, 
noting  the  color. 

2.  Follow  directions  given  above  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  samples.  Set  them  aside  in  a  cool  place  for 
twenty-four  hours.  Compare  the  thickness  of  the 
cream  layers,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  milk. 
Measure  the  cream  with  a  rule.  Which  is  the  richest 
milk?  What  color  was  it  when  first  set?  What  is 
always  the  color  of  very  rich  milk  ?  What  is  the  color 
of  poor  milk? 

3.  Take  a  sample  of  the  first  milk  drawn  from  a 
cow,  and  another  sample  of  the  ''strippings"  from  the 
same  cow;*  Place  these  samples  in  separate  bottles, 
being  careful  to  fill  the  bottles  to  exactly  the  same 
depth.  Note  the  color  of  each.  Set  them  aside  in  a 
cool  place  for  twenty-four  hours  and  then  compare  the 
thickness  of  the  cream  layers. 

4.  After  a  quantity  of  milk  has  stood  in  a  can  for 
thirty  minutes,  take  a  sample  from  the  top  of  the  can. 
Then  plunge  the  dipper  to  the  bottom  and  get  a  sample 
from  near  the  bottom  of  the  can.  Place  these  sam- 
ples in  bottles  as  before,  note  the  color,  and  set  aside 
for  the  cream  to  rise.  Compare  the  thickness  of  the 
cream  layers  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours.  Which 
is  the  richer?    Explain. 

5.  Take  two  samples  of  milk  from  the  same  sup- 
ply, under  the  same  conditions.  Set  one  in  a  very 
cool  place  and  the  other  in  a  warm  place,  for  a  few 


126  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

hours,  and  compare  the  thickness  of  the  cream  layers. 
Set  aside  for  a  few  hours  and  compare  again.  What 
difference  do  you  observe? 

6.  Into  an  unwashed  bottle  in  which  milk  has  been 
allowed  to  sour  place  a  sample  of  fresh,  sweet  milk. 
Into  another  bottle  that  has  been  carefully  cleaned 
and  scalded  place  another  sample  from  the  same  sup- 
ply. Set  the  samples  side  by  side  in  a  warm  room  and 
smell  and  taste  them  at  intervals  of  from  four  to  six 
hours.  Record  definitely  the  differences  in  preserva- 
tion of  the  two  samples. 

7.  Take  two  samples  from  the  same  supply  of 
fresh,  sweet  milk,  and  place  them  in  dishes  that  have 
been  carefully  cleaned  and  scalded.  Set  one  dish  over 
night  in  the  barn,  or  in  some  other  place  where  the 
air  is  filled  with  bad  odors.  Set  the  other  sample  in 
the  open  air  or  in  a  well  ventilated  place  where  there 
can  be  no  bad  odors.  Smell  and  taste  of  both  next 
morning.  Has  the  bad  odor  affected  the  taste  or  odor 
of  the  milk?  From  this  experiment  what  do  you 
infer  regarding  the  effects  of  bad  air  upon  milk  to  be 
used  in  making  butter,  or  cheese,  or  for  any  other 
purpose  ? 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Fanners*  Bulletins. 

No.    29. — Souring    of     Milk    and    Other    Changes    in     Milk 
Products. 
No.    42. — Facts  about  Milk. 

No.    55. — The  Dairy  Herd:     Its  Formation  and  Management. 
No.    57. — Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 


THE  DAIRY  127 

No.    63. — Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

No.  151. — Dairying  in  the  South. 

No.  166. — Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm. 

No.  201. — The  Cream  Separator  on  Western  Farms. 

Definition. — A  per  cent  is  a  fraction  whose  de- 
nominator is  100.  Thus:  i-ioo  is  i  per  cent,  2-100 
is  2  per  cent,  5-100  is  5  per  cent,  and  so  on.  There  are 
three  ways  of  writing  per  cents,  thus :  2-100  =  .02  = 
2%.     They  all  mean  exactly  the  same  thing. 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  butter- fat  in  5,000  pounds 
of  milk  that  tests  4  per  cent? 

2.  A  farmer  owns  a  herd  of  15  cows  that  average 
24  pounds  of  milk  per  head  daily.  How  many  pounds 
of  milk  does  he  get  in  six  months  (thirty  days  each)  ? 

3.  If  this  milk  tests  3.5  per  cent,  and  butter-fat  is 
worth  25  cents  per  pound,  what  does  he  receive 
monthly  for  his  milk  ?    How  much  per  head  ? 

4.  A  farmer  has  a  herd  of  20  cows.  The  milk,  for 
the  week  weighs  as  follows:  420  lbs.,  418  lbs.,  408 
lbs.,  422  lbs.,  417  lbs.,  432  lbs.  and  423  lbs.,  respec- 
tively. It  tests  5  per  cent  of  butter- fat,  the  price  of 
which  is  30  cents  per  pound.  How  much  do  the  cows 
average  per  head  in  money  for  this  week  ? 

5.  A  farmer  hauls  43,250  lbs.  of  milk  that  tests 
3.8  per  cent  to  a  factory.  The  price  of  butter-fat  is 
26  cents  per  pound.  How  much  money  should  he 
receive? 


128  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

6.  A  farmer  owns  six  cows :  Bess,  Spot,  Brindle, 
Bos,  Kate  and  Red. 

Bess  gives  22  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.8%, 
Spot  gives  15  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  4.2%, 
Brindle  gives  30  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.0%, 
Bos  gives  20  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.5%, 
Kate  gives  14  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  3.2%, 
Red        gives  24  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  which  tests  5.2%. 

Figure  out  the  dairy  value  of  each.  Which  is  the 
best  cow?  The  poorest  one?  Classify  them  in  order 
of  dairy  value. 

7.  Figure  out  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  given 
by  each  cow  in  a  month,  and  the  value  of  it  in  butter- 
fat  at  25  cents  per  pound. 

8.  Two  herds  of  ten  cows  each  are  compared : 
The  Jerseys  average  18  lbs.  of  milk  each  daily;  the 
Holstein-Freisians  average  30  lbs.  of  milk  each  daily. 
The  Jerseys  test  5.4  per  cent;  the  Holstein-Friesians 
test  3.2  per  cent.    Which  is  the  more  valuable  herd  ? 

9,,  With  butter- fat  at  30  cents  per  pound,  what  is 
the  monthly  average  per  cow  of  each  herd  ? 

10.  Pupils  will  furnish  actual  data  from  home  for 
other  dairy  problems. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

POULTRY 

Profit  in  Poultry-Raising. — There  is  no  department 
of  diversified  farming  that  yields  larger  returns  for 
the  labor  and  money  expended  than  the  poultry  yard, 
if  properly  handled.  No  farmer  tries  to  get  along 
without  chickens,  and  many  farmers'  wives  and  chil- 
dren are  made  happy  by  the  revenue  derived  from  a 
flock  of  turkeys,  ducks  or  geese.  But  poultry-raising 
has  not  been  given  sufficient  attention  on  many  Amer- 
ican farms.  There  is  no  more  wholesome  or  nutritious 
article  of  food  than  eggs,  and  by  most  people  poultry 
is  highly  esteemed  as  an  article  of  diet.  There  is  a 
steady  demand  for  fresh  eggs,  and  well-fattened  young 
fowls  always  bring  a  high  price  in  the  market.  On 
many  farms  the  money  received  from  the  sale  of 
eggs  and  poultry  amounts  to  several  hundred  dollars 
annually. 

The  labor  involved  in  this  industry  is  of  a  kind  that 
can  easily  l^e  done  by  women  and  children.  The  feed 
required  is  raised  on  every  farm,  and  the  necessary 
buildings  are  cheap  and  easily  built.  All  these  factors 
tend  to  make  poultry-raising  very  profitable  when 
thoughtfully  and  intelligently  pursued. 


130  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Care  of  Poultry. — If  necessary,  chickens  may  be 
confined  to  somewhat  narrow  Hmits,  but  ducks,  geese 
and  turkeys  usually  thrive  best  when  given  free  range 
of  the  farm.  The  reason  for  this  is  plain.  Fowls  are 
insect  and  seed  eaters,  and,  when  allowed  to  roam, 
select  the  kinds  of  insects  and  seeds  which  they  like 
best.  But,  when  kept  in  confinement,  man  forces  them 
to  eat  the  things  he  provides;  and,  unless  a  special 
study  has  been  made  of  poultry  foods,  they  may  not 
always  be  the  ones  the  fowls  themselves  would  select. 
Again,  as  has  been  said  in  another  chapter,  if  hens  are 
to  lay  eggs,  they  must  be  fed  egg-producing  foods. 
If  confined  they  should  have  constant  access  to  a  box 
of  grits,  oyster  shells,  gravel,  lime,  charcoal,  sand, 
ground  bone,  and  the  like,  to  be  used  in  grinding  their 
food,  and  out  of  which  to  make  eggshells.  They 
should  be  fed  meat  scraps,  skim-milk,  barley,  refuse 
from  the  table,  and  other  foods  rich  in  protein  out  of 
which  to  make  eggs.  In  winter  time,  green  foods  like 
cabbage,  turnips,  and  silage  should  be  given  to  them. 

Foods. — To  repeat  what  has  been  said  in  another 
place :  "Nature  has  provided  in  summer  proper  foods 
for  most  farm  animals,  and  the  nearer  summer  condi- 
tions can  be  duplicated  the  greater  will  be  the  farmer's 
success."  The  winter  food  of  chickens  should,  there- 
fore, consist  of  four  kinds — minerals,  which  they  get 
by  scratching  in  summer;  meat,  to  take  the  place  of 
summer  insects;  grains;  and  green  foods.  Ungrate- 
ful, indeed,  would  be  the  hen  who  did  not  respond  to 
this  diet  with  a  liberal  return  of  eggs. 


POULTRY 


131 


Insects  as  Food  for  Fowls. — One  other  fact  in  con- 
nection with  the  food  of  fowls  is  deserving  of  special 
emphasis  here.  Since  their  food  consists  so  largely 
of  seeds  and  insects,  it  is  quite  evident  that  they  are 
worth  all  it  costs  to  keep  them  in  the  assistance  which 
they  give  to  the  farmer  in  devouring  seeds  of  weeds 
and  in  holding  insect  pests  in  check. 


HEN  HONORS. 


The  Poultry  House. — Like  other  farm  animals, 
fowls  must  be  protected  from  cold  and  storms.  Their 
houses  should  be  large,  light,  airy,  clean,  and  dry. 
Chickens  should  have  a  "scratching  place"  where  they 
can  get  to  dry  dirt  and  scratch  and  wallow  in  it.  Dust 
acts  as  a  sort  of  insect  powder,  filling  up  the  insect's 
breathing  pores,  and  thus  keeps  the  chickens  free  from 
lice.    It  is  important  that  chickens  have  plenty  of  exer- 


132  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

cise,  and  this  they  can  get  in  winter  if  they  have  a 
warm  and  dry  place  where  they  can  go  to  scratch.  It 
is  a  common  practice  among  poultry  raisers  to  force 
them  to  scratch  for  their  food  by  strewing  it  over  a 
floor  thickly  covered  with  chaff  or  short  straw. 

Cleanliness  in  Care  of  Poultry. — Poultry  houses 
should  be  frequently  cleaned  and  whitewashed  to  keep 
them  free  from  bad  odors  and  vermin.  They  should 
be  well  lighted  by  a  row  of  windows,  placed  along  the 
south  side,  and  they  should  be  built  sufficiently  warm 
to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the  chickens'  combs  and  feet. 
Above  all  else,  they  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry  to 
avoid  disease. 

Laying  Qualities  of  Poultry. — In  the  wild  state,  the 
hen  laid  but  one  setting  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen  eggs  a 
year.  This  number  has  been  greatly  increased  by 
domestication  until  the  "two-hundred-egg-a-year"  hen 
is  considered  an  easy  possibility  by  many  poultry  rais- 
ers. If  farmers  will  use  care  in  selecting  only  the  eggs 
from  the  most  prolific  layers  for  setting,  they  can, 
without  doubt,  greatly  improve  the  laying  qualities  of 
their  flock.  Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  selec- 
tion of  a  breed. 

Varieties  of  Foods. — The  variety  selected  for  farm 
use  will  depend  largely  upon  the  purpose  for  which 
the  fowls  are  grown.  There  are  some  varieties  espe- 
cially desirable  for  their  laying  qualities,  others  are 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  early  spring  chicken  mar- 
ket, and  still  others  which  may  be  called  general  pur-  . 
pose  fowls.    The  intelligent  farmer  informs  himself  as 


POULTRY  133 

to  the  respective  merits  of  the  several  breeds  and 
selects  the  one  best  adapted  to  his  needs.  What  is 
true  in  the  selection  of  a  variety  of  chickens  is  equally 
true  of  turkeys,  ducks  and  geese  and  is  left  to  the 
intelligent  action  of  the  farmer  without  further  com- 
ment here.    The  bulletins  named  below  will  be  of  great 


GOOD  MATERIAL  FOR  A  TRODUCE  ACCOUNT. 

value  to  the  poultry  raiser  in  making  his  selection  and 
will  give  him  other  assistance  and  direction  in  the  care 
and  management  of  his  poultry. 

Pree  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.     51. — Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

No.    64.--Ducks  and  Geese,  Breeds,  and  Management. 

No.  141. — Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 


134  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

No.  177. — Squab  Raising. 

No.  200. — Turkeys,  Varieties,  and  Management. 

Problems. 

1.  A  flock  of  60  hens  average  80  eggs  a  year  each. 
With  eggs  worth  1 5  cents  per  dozen,  what  is  the  vakie 
of  these  eggs? 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  corn  will  this  buy  at  40 
cents  per  bushel?     Of  oats  at  25  cents? 

3.  Suppose  it  takes  only  12  bushels  of  corn,  5 
bushels  of  oats  and  $7  worth  of  other  food  to  keep 
this  flock  for  one  year,  besides  what  they  pick  up  for 
themselves.  What  is  the  profit  over  and  above  the 
cost  of  the  feed? 

4.  What  would  have  been  the  profit  if  they  had 
laid  120  eggs  each,  instead  of  80? 

5.  Ask  pupils  to  furnish  data  for  at  least  twenty 
other  similar  problems. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


SPECIAL  CROPS 


Four  Special  Crops. — There  are  a  few  special  crops, 
which,  because  of  their  increasing  importance  in  agri- 
culture, demand  our  attention.  Four  of  these  will  be 
considered  in  this  chapter — tobacco,  sugar  beets,  pota- 
toes and  onions.  All  of  these  crops  are  grown  in  the 
United  States  today,  but,  with  the  exception  of  pota- 
toes, not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  demand. 
Until  we  do  raise  enough  for  home  consumption,  these 
crops  will  yield  larger  returns  to  the  farmer  than  the 
other  crops  grown  on  the  farm. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco  a  Heavy  Feeder. — As  we  have  already 
learned,  tobacco  is  a  heavy  feeder  and  hard  on  the 
soil.  With  every  crop  of  tobacco  sold  off  the  farm 
about  twice  as  much  fertility  is  removed  as  with  any 
grain  crop  that  the  farmer  raises  for  market.  But  we 
have  agreed  that  grain  farming  does  not  pay.  How 
much  more  unprofitable,  then,  is  it  for  the  farmer  to 
raise  tobacco  extensively.  There  is  but  one  way  in 
which  he  can  keep  up  the  fertility  of  his  soil,  and  that 


136 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


is  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  In  this  way 
soil  matter  is  bought  and  brought  back  to  the  farm  to 
take  the  place  of  that  sold  with  the  tobacco.  Extensive 
experiments  have  been  made  at  the  different  agricul- 
tural stations  to  determine  the  kind  and  amount  of 


A  TYPICAL  TOBACCO   FIELD. 
(Oconto  County,   Wisconsin.) 


these  fertiliers  to  use.  The  results  show  that  they  are 
even  better  than  barnyard  manure  for  this  crop.  The 
only  way  that  the  farmer  can  find  out  the  kind  and 
amount  best  adapted  to  his  soil  is  by  careful  experi- 
ment. It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  com- 
mercial fertilizers  tend  to  harden  the  soil,  while  barn- 
yard manure  improves  its  texture. 


SPECIAL  CROPS  137 

Kind  of  Soil  Required. — Tobacco  requires  fertile, 
well-drained  soil,  rich  in  humus.  Not  every  soil  will 
grow  good  tobacco.  Even  on  the  same  farm,  places 
are  found  which  seem  to  be  especially  adapted  to  its 
growth.  Herein  another  danger  lies.  The  farmer  is 
likely  to  grow  tobacco,  year  after  year,  on  this  same 
piece  of  land  until  its  fertility  is  exhausted,  or  else  he 
has  robbed  the  rest  of  his  farm  by  putting  all  of  his 
fertilizers  on  his  tobacco  land.  Again,  such  conditions 
make  crop  rotation  impracticable. 

Cultivation. — Moreover,  tobacco  requires  thorough 
cultivation  and  careful  attention  in  harvesting  and  cur- 
ing. These  things  are  best  learned  by  actual  practice, 
and  a  discussion  of  them  is  beyond  the  province  of  this 
book. 

SUGAR   BEETS. 

Beefs  Compared  with  Other  Plants. — Beets,  like  to- 
bacco, are  heavy  feeders,  and,  like  tobacco,  require 
thorough  cultivation.  Unlike  tobacco,  however,  they 
can  be  grown  so  as  to  retain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Sugar  is  a  carlx)hydrate,  and  carbohydrates,  you  will 
remember,  arc  made  by  the  plant  from  the  air  and  the 
water  which  the  plant  uses.  If  the  beets  are  shipped 
to  the  factory,  the  sugar  extracted  there,  and  the  pulp 
returned  to  be  fed  on  the  farm  or  used  as  a  fertilizer, 
the  soil  has  lost  nothing.  It  is  much  the  same  as  if 
the  tobacco  ashes  were  brought  back  to  the  farm.  With 
tobacco,  however,  this  is  impossible,  but  with  beets  it 


138  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

is  possible  to  return  the  pulp,  and  this  should  always 
be  done. 

Advantages  of  Beets. — Sugar  beets  have  still  other 
advantages  over  tobacco.  In  the  first  place,  the  price 
is  fixed  by  the  factory  before  the  beets  are  planted. 
The  factory  usually  contracts  to  give  about  $4.50  per 
ton  for  beets  that  test  14  per  cent  of  sugar,  with  an 
additional  25  cents  per  ton  for  each  additional  i  per 
cent  of  sugar.  Thus  beets  testing  15  per  cent  will 
bring  $4.75  per  ton,  and  beets  testing  16  per  cent  will 
bring  $5  per  ton.  They  will  usually  agree  to  ship  the 
pulp  back  to  the  farmer  at  a  small  cost,  say  25  cents 
per  ton.  The  farmer  knows  just  what  price  he  is 
going  to  get  for  his  crop.  What  his  land  brings  him 
per  acre  depends  upon  his  own  efforts,  and  he  will 
then  bend  all  his  energies  toward  producing  a  high 
test  and  a  big  yield.  With  other  crops  a  big  general 
yield  usually  means  a  low  price,  but  a  big  crop  of  beets 
does  not  affect  the  price. 

Again,  beets  require  less  care  than  tobacco.  They 
do  not  need  to  be  housed  or  cured.  No  capital  need 
be  invested  in  sheds  or  curing  rooms. 

In  the  third  place,  they  can  be  grown  successfully 
on  a  large  variety  of  soils,  and  they  furnish,  when 
the  pulp  is  returned  to  the  farm,  an  excellent  food  for 
stock. 

In  the  fourth  place,  their  long  roots,  and  the  deep 
cultivation  required,  bring  to  the  surface  fertility  from 
deep  down  in  the  soil.  In  Germany,  several  years 
after  their  cultivation  was  introduced,  more  grain  was 


SPECIAL  CROPS  139 

grown  per  acre  on  land  where  the  beets  had  been  culti- 
vated than  could  possibly  have  been  grown  before 
their  cultivation  was  begun. 

A  comparison  of  beets  and  tobacco  gives  the  prefer- 
ence to  beets  as  a  farm  crop.  They  grow  well  on 
tobacco  land  and  are  an  excellent  crop  to  be  used  in 


HARVESTING  SUGAR   BEETS. 


rotation  with  it.  Their  cultivation  is  easily  learned, 
and  they  are  less  exposed  to  injury  from  storms,  in- 
sects and  plant  diseases. 

POTATO. 

The  Best  Soil  for  Potatoes. — Potatoes  of  the  best 
quality  are  grown  on  light,  sandy  land,  rich  in  humus. 
Heavy  clay  soils  do  not  give  way  readily  as  the  pota- 
toes increase  in  size,  hence  will  produce  smaller 
potatoes. 

Yield  of  Potatoes. — This  crop  yields  heavily,  five 
hundred  bushels  per  acre  being  not  unusual.    Potatoes 


I40  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

should  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep,  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  and  about  two  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
Extensive  experiments,  carried  on  by  the  different 
agricultural  stations,  show  that  the  seed  potatoes 
should  be  cut  in  halves  or  quarters.  When  the  price 
of  seed  potatoes  is  very  high,  they  may  be  cut  in 
smaller  pieces  of  as  nearly  equal  size  as  possible.  No 
bad  results  have  come  from  planting  small  potatoes, 
though  one  would  naturally  think  that  small  potatoes, 
used  as  seed,  would  give  small  potatoes  in  return.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  potato  is  not 
a  seed,  but  an  underground  stem,  and  that  it  does  not 
bear  the  same  relation  to  the  crop  that  the  seed  does. 
Like  the  seed,  it  serves  as  a  storehouse  for  the  growing 
plant,  and  if  the  pieces  are  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish 
this  food  matter,  the  next  crop  will  not  be  affected  by 
the  size  of  the  potato  planted. 

Prevention  of  Potato  Rot. — To  prevent  rot  or  blight 
the  seed  should  be  rolled  in  sulphur,  the  vines  sprayed 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  as  soon  as  blight  appears,  and 
rotation  of  crops  practiced.  In  no  case  should  pota- 
toes be  planted  on  the  same  ground  where  the  previous 
crop  has  been  affected,  as  the  spores  are  in  the  soil 
and  will  surely  attack  them. 

ONIONS. 

Advantages  of  Raising  Onions. — Not  enough  onions 
are  grown  in  the  United  States  to  supply  the  demand. 
Millions  of  bushels  are  annually  imported.  They  yield 
heavily,  sometimes  as  much  as  a  thousand  bushels  per 


SPECIAL  CROPS  141 

acre,  and  they  are  not  hard  to.  grow.  The  greatest 
cost  of  their  cultivation  is  labor,  but  of  a  kind  that  a 
child  can  easily  do.  Onion  raising  offers  to  the  chil- 
dren on  the  farm  a  splendid  opportunity  to  make  their 
spending  money,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  discussed 
here.     One-fourth  of  an  acre   set  to  onions  should 


ONION  GROWING   FOR  PROFIT. 
Courtesy  of  Country  Calendar. 

yield  100  bushels,  which,  if  the  market  is  good,  will 
bring  them  from  $50  to  $75.  Hard,  indeed,  would  be 
the  farmer  who  would  not  give  to  his  children  so  small 
a  patch  of  ground  on  which  to  grow  onions,  and  time 
enough  to  cultivate  them. 

Kind  of  Soil  Needed. — Onions,  like  tobacco,  require 
a  fertile  soil,  rich  in  humus,  but  they  need  considerably 
more  moisture.  In  the  northern  states  the  seed  should 
be  sown  in  boxes  in  early  spring,  and  the  young  plants 


142  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

transplanted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  fit  condition. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  this :  In  the  first  place, 
onions  grow  very  slowly,  and,  if  sown  in  the  ground, 
the  weeds  become  too  large  and  thick  before  the  young 
onions  are  large  enough  to  cultivate.  In  the  next 
place,  they  can  be  transplanted  the  right  distance 
apart  and  do  not  rob  each  other  of  plant  food,  as  they 
would  before  thinning,  if  sown  in  the  row.  In  the 
third  place,  onions  require  a  large  amount  of  mois- 
ture,  and  if  started  in  the  house  or  hotbed  the  plants 
may  be  set  out  in  time  to  get  all  the  benefit  of  the 
spring  rains.  It  has  been  shown  that  transplanting 
will  double  the  yield. 

How  to  Plant  Onions. — They  should  be  set  in  rows 
from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
should  be  placed  about  four  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
The  soil  should  be  heavily  fertilized,  and  very  thor- 
oughly prepared.  All  lumps  should  be  broken  and 
the  surface  made  smooth.  The  rows  may  be  laid  off 
by  stretching  a  line  across  the  plat.  The  plat  may 
be  marked  out  along  the  string  by  rolling  a  wooden 
wheel  (an  old  wagon  wheel  with  the  tire  removed 
will  answer),  on  whose  edge  wooden  pegs  about  three 
inches  long  and  four  inches  apart  have  been  set.  The 
plants  should  be  placed  in  the  holes  made  by  the  pegs 
and  the  soil  pressed  firmly  around  their  roots. 

Onion  Cultivation. — The  cultivation  can  be  done 
with  a  steady  horse,  if  the  rows  are  far  enough  apart, 
with  a  hand  cultivator  or  with  a  hoe.    Success  depends 


SPECIAL  CROPS  143 

upon  cultivation.  The  soil  should  be  frequently  stirred, 
and  it  must  be  kept  absolutely  free  from  weeds. 

When  Ready  for  Harvest. — When  the  tops  are  dead 
and  dry  the  crop  is  ready  for  harvest.  The  onions 
should  be  pulled,  carefully  cleaned,  dried  in  the  sun  for 
a  few  hours  and  stored  away  in  a  cool,  dry  place  until 
ready  for  market.  If  they  are  placed  in  bushel  boxes 
with  lath  sides  they  will  keep  in  good  condition. 

Best  Varieties  of  Onions. — Yellow  Danvers,  Early 
Reds,  Red  Wethersfields,  Yellow  Globe  and  Prizetak- 
ers  are  the  standard  varieties.  The  first  named  is  the 
heaviest  yielder,  an  onion  of  excellent  flavor  and  sells 
well  on  the  market. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.  35.— Potato  Culture. 

No.  39. — Onion  Culture. 

No.  52. — The  Sugar  Beet. 

No.  60. — Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco. 

No.  82, — The  Culture  of  Tobacco. 

No.  83. — Tobacco  Soils. 

No.  120.— The  Principal  Insect  Affecting  the  Tobacco  Plant. 

No.  129. — Sweet  Potatoes. 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  tobacco  plants  will  be  required  to 
set  an  acre  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  the  plants  two 
feet  apart  in  the  row? 

2.  Tobacco  is  usually  stnmg  on  laths  to  be  cured. 
With  twelve  stalks  to  the  lath,  how  many  laths  will  be 
needed  per  acre? 


144  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

3.  If  the  stalks  need  four  feet  of  vertical  space  and 
the  laths  are  hung  one  foot  apart  in  the  shed,  how 
many  cubic  feet  of  shed  room  will  be  required  to  house 
an  acre  of  tobacco  ? 

4.  Give  dimensions  of  a  shed  for  five  acres  of 
tobacco. 

5.  If  the  average  weight  of  seed  potatoes  is  four 
ounces  each,  and  if  they  are  cut  in  halves  and  planted 
in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  eigheten  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  how  many  bushels  of  seed  will  be  required 
per  acre? 

6.  How  many  bushels  will  be  needed  if  whole 
potatoes  are  used?     Quarters?     Eighths? 

7.  A  sugar  factory  agrees  to  pay  $4.50  per  ton  for 
all  beets  testing  14  per  cent,  or  less,  of  sugar.  They 
also  agree  to  give  an  additional  25  cents  per  ton  for 
each  additional  i  per  cent  of  sugar  or  fraction  thereof 
over  14  per  cent,  if  the  fraction  exceeds  one-half 
per  cent.  What  is  the  price  of  beets  testing  13.7  per 
cent?  14  per  cent?  14.3  per  cent?  14.7  per  cent? 
15  per  cent?  15.2  per  cent?  15.6  per  cent?  15.8  per 
cent? 

8.  Mr.  Smith's  beets  yield  fourteen  tons  per  acre 
and  test  15  per  cent.  How  much  does  he  get  per  acre 
for  his  crop? 

9.  On  two  acres  of  ground  Mr.  Jones  raises  73,680 
pounds  of  beets  which  test  14.8  per  cent.  How  much 
do  his  beets  bring  him  in  money  per  acre? 

10.  If  Mr.  Jones  spends  $56  worth  of  labor  on 
his  crop  of  beets,  what  is  his  net  profit  per  acre  ? 


SPECIAL  CROPS  145 

11.  How  many  onion  plants  will  be  required  to  set 
an  acre  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  plants  four  inches 
•apart  in  the  row? 

12.  If  a  boy  can  set  nine  plants  per  minute,  how 
long  will  it  take  him  to  set  them? 

13.  If  these  onions  average  four  ounces  each,  how 
many  bushels  are  raised  on  an  acre?  If  they  average 
six  ounces?    Twelve  ounces?    One  pound? 

14.  What  is  the  value  of  the  crop  in  each  case,  at 
60  cents  per  bushel? 

15.  If  it  requires  fifty  days  of  a  boy's  time,  worth 
75  cents  per  day,  to  raise  an  acre  of  onions,  what  will 
be  his  profit  on  an  acre  of  four-ounce  onions  ? 

16.  Pupils  will  furnish  data  for  other  similar  prob- 
lems. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


FAEM  BUILDINGS 


Number  and  Kinds  of  Buildings. — That  good,  sub- 
stantial buildings  are  needed  on  every  farm  goes  with- 
out saying.  The  number  and  kind,  of  course,  vary 
with  the  size  and  location  of  the  farm,  and  the  special 
crops  raised  thereon.  But  a  good  house,  barn,  gran- 
ary, silo,  carriage  and  tool  house  are  almost  indis- 
pensable on  every  farm. 

Attention  to  Arrangement. — Usually  too  little  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  arrangement  of  these  buildings, 
and,  when  they  once  have  been  placed,  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  correct  the  bad  effect  of  poor  arrange- 
ment. The  barn  in  front  of  the  house,  or  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  it,  the  hog  house  in  front  of  the  house, 
the  barnyard  between  the  house  and  the  barn,  the 
carriage  house  opening  into  the  barnyard,  and  the 
vegetable  garden  in  the  dooryard,  are  some  of  the 
common  mistakes. 

Location  of  the  House. — The  location  of  the  house 
should  receive  first  attention.  It  should  be  placed  on 
an  elevation  sufficient  to  afford  good  drainage,  four 
or  five  rods  back  from  the  road,  leaving  room  for  a 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


147 


nice  lawn  in  front.  The  barn  should  be  placed  at  one 
side  and  farther  back  from  the  road.  If  possible,  it 
should  be  so  located  that  the  prevailing  wind  will  carry 
the  barn  odors  away  from  the  house.     The  barnyard 


FARM    BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    NEATLY    AND   CON- 
VENIENTLY ARRANGED. 

should  be  in  the  rear  of  the  barn  so  that  the  view 
from  the  house  will  be  unobstructed  by  high  board 
fences,  stables  or  sheds.  A  drive  should  lead  from 
the  road  to  the  barn,  and  the  horse  stable  and  car- 
riage house  should  open  onto  this  drive,  so  that  the 


148 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


farmer  and  his  sons  will  not  be  compelled  to  pass 
through  the  barnyard  every  time  they  hitch  up  a 
team.  A  walk  of  cinders,  gravel  or  sand  should  lead 
from  the  house  to  the  barn.  Such  a  walk  is  cheap, 
easily  built,  and  will  always  be  clean  and  compara- 
tively dry.     The  vegetable  garden  can  be  placed  any- 


FILLING  THE  SILO. 


where  in  the  rear,  near  the  house,  where  it  will  be 
convenient.  The  logical  place  for  the  well  is  between 
the  barn  and  the  house,  where  it  can  be  used  for  both 
places,  but  not  too  near  the  barn.  The  silo  should 
be  attached  to  or  near  the  barn,  and,  of  course,  the 
granary  should  be  near  by.  Tool  houses,  tobacco 
sheds  and  all  other  outbuildings  should  be  kept  well 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


149 


back  from  the  road,  so  as  not  to  obstruct  the  view 
from  the  house. 

The  Construction  of  Buildings. — But  Httle  need  be 
said  about  the  construction  of  farm  buildings.  The 
careful  farmer  will  adapt  the  buildings  to  the  size  of 
the  farm,  and  his  own  special 
needs.  The  silo  is  the  one 
farm  building,  however,  that 
needs  the  most  careful  con- 
struction. The  importance 
of  silage  as  a  feeding  stuff 
is  growing  more  apparent, 
but  silage  will  not  keep  well 
in  a  poorly  constructed  silo. 
Whatever  the  type  of  silo 
the  farmer  chooses  to  build, 
four  things  must  be  ob- 
served: It  must  be  air- 
tight, strong,  perfectly 
smooth  on  the  inside  and 
placed  on  a  strong,  solid 
foundation. 

The  Silo. — The  silo  must 
be  air-tight,  because  the  air 
contains  germs  that  will  set 
to  work  upon  the  silage  and  cause  it  to  spoil  and 
decay.  Silage  is  something  like  canned  fruit,  in 
this  respect.  The  silo  must  be  strong,  because  the 
green  feed  with  which  it  is  filled  is  very  heavy  and 
solidly    packed    down.     This    exerts    a    tremendous 


SILO, 


VERTICAL    SECTION. 


General  plan  for  wood, 
brick,  stone  or  cement  silo. 
V — Ventilator,  D — Doors,  S — 
Air  spaces,  F — Stone  founda- 
tion, C — Cement  floor. 

When  the  silo  is  attached 
to  the  barn,  the  feeding  and 
filling  doors  are  usually  placed 
on  opposite  sides,  the  feed- 
ing doors  opening  into  the 
barn. 


I50  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

side  pressure  which  will  spring  or  burst  the  walls 
of  a  poorly  constructed  silo  and  admit  air, 
causing  the  silage  to  spoil.  It  must  be  perfectly 
smooth  on  the  inside,  because  silage  should  settle 
evenly.  Projections,  or  rough  places  on  the  inner 
walls  of  a  silo,  will  prevent  this  even  settling,  cause 
dead  air  spaces,  which  spoil  the  silage.  It  must  rest 
on  a  strong,  solid  foundation,  because  the  side  pres- 
sure and  weight  at  the  bottom  are  very  great.  This 
pressure  may  burst  a  heavy  stone  wall — and  the  great 
weight  will  cause  a  silo  placed  on  a  poor  foundation 
to  settle  out  of  shape  and  crack  the  walls. 

Silage  Is  a  Satisfactory  Feed. — If  this  building  is  so 
constructed  as  to  provide  for  sufficient  ventilation  and 
to  prevent  freezing,  and  proper  care  is  used  in  filling 
the  silo,  the  silage  will  be  a  very  satisfactory  feed  to 
use  on  the  farm. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.     32. — Silos  and  Silage. 

No.  126. — Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

Measurements. 
Rules. 

1.  To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  multiply  the  base  by  one-half 
the  height. 

2.  To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  multiply  the  diameter 
by  3  1-7; 

3.  To  find  the  area  of  a  circle  multiply  the  square  of  the 
radius  by  3  1-7. 

4.  The  square  of  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right  triangle  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  sides. 

Note:  Make  a  drawing  before  attempting  to  solve  any  of  the 
following  problems. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  151 

Problems. 

1.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  required 
to  build  a  pig  pen  six  feet  wide,  four  feet  from  peak 
to  ground,  and  eight  feet  long?     (See  rules  i  and  4.) 

2.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  needed 
to  board  up  the  gables  of  a  barn  thirty  feet  wide,  the 
peaks  being  twelve  feet  above  the  eaves? 

3.  How  much  lumber  will  it  take  to  cover  a  corn 
crib  with  four-inch  slats,  placed  one  inch  apart,  the 
crib  being  twenty-four  feet  long,  six  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  eight  feet  at  the  top,  eight  feet  to  the  eaves, 
and  the  peak  three  feet  above  the  eaves  ? 

4.  How  long  will  the  rafters  need  to  be  for  this 
crib  if  they  are  to  project  one  foot?  How  many  feet 
of  2x4  rafters  will  be  required  if  they  are  placed  two 
feet  apart? 

5.  How  many  feet  of  2x4  studding  will  be  needed 
if  they  are  placed  the  same  distance  apart?  How 
many  feet  of  roof  boards  will  be  required  if  they  are 
allowed  to  project  one  foot  at  each  end? 

6.  How  many  cubic  feet  must  a  bin  contain  in  or- 
der to  hold  a  thousand  bushels?  Make  a  list  of  con- 
venient dimensions  for  such  a  bin. 

7.  How  many  feet  of  two-inch  plank  will  be  re- 
quired to  build  a  cylindrical  tank  fourteen  feet  across 
and  two  feet  deep?  What  will  be  the  cost  of  the 
lumber  at  $30  per  thousand? 

8.  How  many  feet  of  band  iron  will  it  require  to 
make  three  hoops  for  this  tank? 


152  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

9.  How  many  feet  of  inch  lumber  will  be  required 
to  cover  the  inner  wall  of  a  "round"  silo  twenty-one 
feet  across  and  eighteen  feet  high?  How  many 
feet  of  two-inch  plank  will  be  needed  for  a  cover? 
What  will  be  the  cost  of  all  this  lumber  at  $25  per 
thousand  ? 

10.  What  will  it  cost  to  put  a  cement  floor  in  this 
silo  at  10  cents  per  square  foot? 

11.  How  many  2x4  studdings  eighteen  feet  long 
and  placed  one  foot  apart  will  be  required,  and  what 
will  be  their  cost  at  $24  per  thousand? 

12.  What  will  it  cost  for  the  lumber  to  floor  a  barn 
forty  by  sixty  feet  with  two  and  one-half  inch  plank 
at  $18  per  thousand? 

13.  The  peak  of  this  barn  is  twelve  feet  higher 
than  the  eaves.  What  will  inch  lumber  for  sheeting 
the  gables  cost  at  $24  per  thousand. 

14.  The  rafters  are  made  of  2x4,  and  twenty-seven 
feet  long,  placed  eighteen  inches  apart.  How  much 
will  they  cost  at  $20  per  thousand  ? 

15.  What  will  be  the  cost  of  the  sheeting  for  the 
roof  at  $16  per  thousand  if  the  roof  projects  two  feet 
at  each  end? 

16.  What  will  it  cost  to  shingle  this  roof  with 
shingles  worth  $3.25  per  thousand,  laying  them  five 
inches  to  the  weather  and  allowing  for  a  double  course 
at  the  eaves? 

17.  This  building  is  placed  on  a  wall  twelve  inches 
thick  and  eight  feet  high.  What  is  the  cost  of  the 
stone  for  same  at  $5  per  cord? 


FARM  BUILDINGS  153 

18.  What  will  it  cost  to  fence  a  field  sixty  rods 
long  and  forty-five  rods  wide  with  a  five  wire  fence, 
posts  one  rod  apart,  worth  5  cents  each,  staples  6 
cents  per  pound  (200  to  the  pound),  wire  weighing 
one  pound  to  the  rod,  worth  $4.50  per  cwt.,  and  labor 
amounting  to  $6? 

19.  What  will  it  cost  to  build  a  five  board  fence 
around  the  same  field,  using  twelve-foot  boards,  six 
inches  wide,  and  worth  $16  per  thousand,  posts  5 
cents  each,  nails  and  labor,  $15? 

20.  Pupils  make  and  solve  similar  problems  from 
data  taken  from  actual  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XX 


FABM  ACCOUNTS 


Keeping  Accounts. — There  are  times  when  every 
farmer  needs  to  keep  accounts.  Sometimes  it  is  de- 
sirable to  know  just  how  much  cash  is  received  and 
paid  out  during  the  year.  A  simple  cash  account 
will  show  this.  All  kinds  of  accounts  require  two 
columns.  These  columns  may  be  placed  side  by  side 
at  the  right  of  the  page,  or  the  page  may  be  divided 
with  double  ruling  down  its  center,  or  two  separate 
pages,  facing  each  other,  may  be  used.  Whichever 
kind  of  ruling  is  used,  the  accounts  are  all  kept  in 
exactly  the  same  way.  The  divided  page  method  is 
used  in  this  book. 

Cash  Accounts. — In  keeping  a  cash  account  the  word 
CASH  is  first  written  across  the  top  of  the  page.  All 
cash  received  is  placed  in  the  cash  space  in  the  left 
hand  side,  and  all  cash  paid  out  is  placed  in  the  cash 
space  in  the  right  hand  side.  At  the  extreme  left  of 
each  side  the  date  is  placed,  and  between  the  date  and 
the  cash  space  the  item,  for  which  cash  has  been  re- 
ceived or  paid,  is  written.  The  total  amount  of  cash 
received,  or  paid  out,  is  easily  found  by  adding  the 


FARM  ACCOUNTS 


155 


amounts  on  each  side,  and  the  difference  of  these  two 
sums  represents  the  cash  on  hand.  Cash  on  hand 
should  be  carried  over  into  the  received  side  at  the 
top  of  the  next  page,  when  any  page  is  filled  up  with 
entries.  If  it  is  desired,  the  totals  may  be  carried 
over  into  their  respective  columns  instead,  and  the 
new  page  kept  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  pre- 
ceding page.  This  is  all  there  is  in  keeping  a  cash 
account.  It  is  a  very  simple  and  easy  thing  to  do. 
For  example : 

CASH. 


Date  1905 

Item 

Rec'd 

Date  1905 

Item 

Patd 

Jan 

1 

Cash  on  hand . 

$24 

40 

Jan. 

2 

Groceries 

$3 

00 

Jan. 

8 

For  hogs 

102 

75 

Jan. 

16 

For  coal 

14 

40 

Jan. 

30 

For  butter  .... 

42 

84 

Jan. 

17 

For  books 

6 

00 

Feb. 

1 

For  eggs 

2 

26 

Jan. 

20 

For  overcoat.... 

12 

00 

Feb. 

1 

For  rubbers 

76 

Study  the  above  illustration,  determine  how  much 
cash  is  on  hand  Feb.  i,  1905,  and  on  a  blank  sheet  of 
paper,  open  up  a  new  page  in  both  ways  as  described 
above.  Submit  your  work  to  your  teacher  to  find  out 
whether  you  are  correct. 

Personal  Accounts. — A  personal  account  is  kept  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  a  cash  account.  The  name 
of  the  person  is  first  written  across  the  top  of  the 


156 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


page.  Whenever  this  person  receives  anything  from 
the  one  keeping  the  account,  this  entry  is  made  in  the 
left  hand  side  under  the  word  debtor,  and  whenever 
he  pays  anything  on  this  account,  this  entry  is  made 
in  the  right  hand  side  under  the  word  creditor,  exactly 
the  same  as  with  a  cash  account.  The  dates  and  items 
are  written  in  their  proper  places,  which  are  the  same 
as  those  for  cash  accounts.     For  example: 


JOHN 

SMITH. 

Date  1905 

Item 

Dr. 

Date  1905 

Item 

Cr. 

Sept. 

22 

Toipig 

$12 

50 

Oct. 

3 

By  3  days' work. 

$4 

50 

Oct. 

10 

By  cash 

2 

00 

Oct. 

26 

By  1  days'  work. 

1 

60 

Suppose  that  on  Sept.  22,  1905,  you  sell  a  pig  to 
John  Smith  for  $12.50,  for  which  he  agrees  to  pay 
either  in  money  or  in  labor  at  $1.50  per  day.  He 
works  on  Oct.  i,  2  and  3.  On  Oct.  10  he  pays  $2  in 
cash,  and  on  Oct.  25  he  works  another  day.  The 
account  is  kept  in  this  manner. 

This  account  shows,  in  a  brief  manner,  a  complete 
history  of  this  transaction.  It  gives  all  dates,  which 
are  of  great  importance  in  all  accounts.  It  shows  that 
John  Smith  owes  you  $12.50  for  a  pig,  that  he  has 
already  paid  you  $8  in  labor  and  cash,  and  that  he 


FARM  ACCOUNTS 


157 


still  owes  you  $4.50.  When  this  is  paid,  it  should 
be  entered  under  the  other  items  in  the  credit  column, 
both  columns  added  and  the  account  closed  by  drawing 
two  lines  across  the  page  below  the  account,  like  this : 


JOHN 

SMITH. 

Date  1906 

Item 

Dr. 

Date  1906 

Item 

Cr. 

Sept. 

22 

To  1  pig 

$12 

60 

Oct. 

3 

By  3  days' work. 

$4 

60 

Oct. 

10 

By  cash 

2 

no 

Oct 

26 

By  1  day's  work. 

1 

50 

Oct. 

30 

By  bal.  cash  .... 

4 

50 

$12 

ftO 

$12 

60 

PRODUCE  ACCOUNTS. 

Sometimes  the  farmer  wishes  to  know  his  profits 
on  his  cows,  tobacco,  beets  or  other  things  produced 
on  the  farm.  It  often  happens  that  his  wife  wants 
to  keep  account  of  her  profits  on  berries  or  poultry. 
Such  an  account  is  called  a  produce  account,  and  it 
is  kept  exactly  like  a  personal  account.  Suppose  that 
you  want  to  keep  an  account  of  your  chickens.  The 
word  CHICKENS  is  first  written  across  the  top  of  the 
page.  Whenever  the  chickens  receive  anything  from 
you  like  feed  or  coops,  this  entry  is  made  in  the  left 
hand  column  under  the  word  debtor.  Whenever  they 
pay  you  anything  in  the  form  of  eggs  or  young  chick- 


158 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


ens,  this  entry  is  made  in  the  right  hand  column  under 
the  word  creditor.     Study  the  following  account: 


CHICKENS. 


Date  1905 

Item 

Dr. 

Date  1906 

Item 

Or. 

May 

1 

To  lumber  Ut  cosps 

$3 

20 

May 

30 

By  eggs  for  mo . . 

$2 

50 

June 

2 

To  feed 

75 

June 

30 

By  eggs  for  mo.. 

1 

60 

June 

30 

To  com  meal . . 

2 

40 

July 

30 

Ey  eggs  for  mo . . 

2 

10 

Aug. 

1 

Tocorn 

3 

00 

Oct. 

" 

By  yaoaf  ehickcM  . . . 

6 

00 

Oct. 

1 

By  yoooi  chickens  eat'D 

3 

00 

Oct. 

1 

Front  

10 

05 

Oct. 

1 

By  eggs  eaten... 

4 

00 

$19 

40 

$19 

40 

The  above  account  shows  that  these  chickens  re- 
ceived from  you  a  total  of  $9.35  in  coops  and  feed, 
and  that  they  paid  you  in  eggs  and  young  chickens, 
which  you  sold,  and  in  other  eggs  and  chickens, 
which  you  ate  during  the  summer,  a  total  of  $19.40, 
giving  you  a  profit  of  $10.05  ^^  ^^^  investment. 

If  farmers  would  form  the  habit  of  keeping  ac- 
counts of  their  stock  and  their  crops,  much  unprofit- 
able farming  might  be  avoided,  as  attention  would 
thus  be  directed  to  those  products  which,  on  the  aver- 
age, yield  the  largest  returns  for  the  labor  and  money 
expended. 


FARM  ACCOUNTS  159 

Problems. 

1.  A  farmer's  boy  hires  out  to  a  neighbor  for  five 
months  at  $22  per  month.  He  begins  work  April  i, 
with  $7.35  cash  on  hand.  He  receives  his  pay  at  the 
end  of  every  month.  April  2,  he  pays  $2.75  for  shoes. 
April  20,  25c  for  a  straw  hat.  May  3,  he  spends 
$1.25  for  a  coat.  May  31,  he  buys  a  colt  for  $42. 
July  I,  he  pays  $14.75  ^^^  more  clothing.  July  4,  he 
spends  $2.35.  July  20,  he  sells  his  colt  for  $55. 
August  15,  he  pays  $6.50  for  a  watch,  and,  during 
the  summer,  he  spends  $4.85  for  sundry  small  articles. 

Write  out  his  account  and  determine  how  much 
cash  he  has  on  hand  when  his  time  is  out. 

2.  Two  boys  rent  for  $4  a  half  acre  of  land  on 
which  to  plant  onions.  They  allow  themselves  75c 
each  per  day  for  their  time.  It  costs  them  $2  to  get 
this  piece  of  land  fertilized  and  plowed.  They  each 
spend  ten  days'  time  planting  and  cultivating  their 
onions,  and  four  days  more  each  when  harvesting 
time  comes.  They  sell  $14.30  worth  of  green  onions, 
and  harvest  142  bushels  more.  For  100  bushels  they 
get  75c  per  bushel,  and  60c  per  bushel  for  the  re- 
mamder. 

Write  out  their  onion  account,  and  find  their  profit. 

3.  A  farmer  runs  an  account  with  George  White, 
a  merchant.  July  7,  he  buys  a  pair  of  shoes  for  $2.40 
and  has  them  charged  on  account.  July  20.  he  takes  in 
twelve  dozen  of  eggs  at  1 1  cents  per  dozen  and  gets 
50c  worth  of  sugar.  August  3,  he  takes  in  twelve 
pounds  of  butter  at  20  cents  per  pound  and  gets  nine 


i6o  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

yards  of  calico  at  6  cents  per  yard,  one  pound  of  tea 
at  50  cents,  four  pounds  of  coffee  at  18  cents  per 
pound,  and  a  barrel  of  salt  at  $1.25.  August  14,  he 
gets  a  pail  of  fish  at  75  cents  and  100  pounds  of  sugar 
at  5^  cents  per  pound,  and  pays  $2  in  cash.  How 
does  his  account  stand  on  August  15? 

Write  out  this  account  with  Geo.  White. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


FOEESTEY 


Importance  of  the  Forest. — Next  to  the  soil  itself, 
no  other  part  of  the  earth,  or  its  furnishing,  is  of  such 
importance  to  man  as  the  forest.  Indeed,  without  the 
forest,  past  and  present,  there  would  hardly  be  any 
tillable  soil.  But  it  is  also  our  chief  source  of  building 
material  and  of  fuel.  It  is,  moreover,  the  great  gar- 
ment of  the  earth,  protecting  and  adorning  it. 

Nflture  of  the  Forest. — The  forest  is  much  more 
than  a  collection  of  independent  trees;  it  is  a  great 
organism,  composed  of  many  parts,  or  elements,  each 
dependent  on  the  others.  It  has  a  very  complex  and 
varied  life,  comprising  not  only  trees  and  shrubs,  but 
also  herbs,  flowers,  mosses,  lichens,  birds,  insects,  and 
higher  animals  in  great  variety,  all  dependent  for  their 
very  life  upon  their  combination  and  mutual  service,  in 
the  great  living  thing  we  call  the  forest. 

InHuence  of  the  Forest. — The  forest  exercises  a 
great  influence  upon  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  out- 
side of  the  forest  limits.  It  is  often  the  source  of 
streams,  and  controls  the  water  supply  of  surrounding 
regions.    It  breaks  the  force  of  winds  and  tempers  the 


i62  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

climate.  It  supplies  vegetable  mold  which  is  an  in- 
dispensable element  in  fertile  soil.  And  it  affords 
recreation,  and  the  highest  forms  of  enjoyment  to 
those  who  can  get  access  to  it.  In  short,  the  forest  is 
one  of  man's  greatest  blessings,  and  yet  it  is  the  one 
which  he  has  abused  with  most  recklessness  and 
ignorance.  And  in  no  part  of  the  world  has  this  reck- 
less waste  been  greater  than  in  the  United  States,  and 
especially  in  the  North  Central  states. 


THE  EDGE  OP  THE  FOREST. 

Destruction  of  the  Forests. — The  forest  was  in- 
tended for  use,  but  it  was  meant  to  serve  man  for 
ages,  and  not  to  be  destroyed  in  the  lifetime  of  a  man. 
The  great  causes  which  have  wrecked  the  forests  and 
wiped  them  from  the  earth  to  so  great  an  extent  are 
(i)  unwise  and  unregulated  cutting  by  lumbermen, 
and  (2)  the  prevalence  of  forest  fires.  These  fires, 
springing  up  in  seasons  of  drouth,  are  fed  and  made 


FORESTRY  163 

destructive  by  the  brush  and  dead  tree  tops,  left  as 
wreckage  on  the  ground,  wherever  logging  has  been 
carried  on.  The  fires  are  often  started  by  the  criminal 
negligence  of  hunters  and  campers  in  not  putting  out 
all  remains  of  their  camp-fires,  or  in  other  careless 
ways.  Some  of  these  fires  have  done  immense  dam- 
age to  the  standing  forest,  and  have  caused  great  dis- 
tress and  loss  of  human  life.  Among  the  most  destruc- 
tive of  these  are  the  great  Peshtigo  fire  of  1871,  in 
Northeastern  Wisconsin,  and  the  Hinckley  fire  of 
1894,  in  Minnesota. 

The  Economic  Use  of  the  Forest. — The  science  and 
art  of  forestry  has  for  its  purpose  the  perpetuation 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  economical  utilization  of  the 
forest.  It  teaches  men  how  to  keep  the  forest  alive 
by  cutting  out  only  the  trees  that  have  got  their  growth 
and  are  ripe,  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  injure  or  endanger 
the  remaining  growth.  The  younger  trees  are  thus 
given  more  light  and  air  and  room  to  grow,  while  the 
undergrowth  is  also  preserved.  The  "forest  floor"  of 
decaying  leaves,  rotten  wood,  and  other  debris  is  pre- 
served as  a  means  of  enriching  the  soil  and,  especially, 
of  retaining  moisture  and  preventing  the  rains  from 
running  off  too  quickly  in  surface  wash  and  floods. 
Forestry  also  teaches  the  best  ways  of  replanting,  or 
**re-foresting,"  areas  in  which  the  timber  has  already 
been  wastefully  destroyed.  This  art  of  prudently  man- 
aging timber  lands,  so  as  to  keep  up  their  blessings  to 
their  owners  and  others,  has  long  been  practiced  in 
European  countries,  particularly  in  Germany,  and  has 


l64  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

proved  of  the  greatest  advantage.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  are  just  waking  up  to  the  necessity  of 
such  a  course,  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Forestry  is  now  doing  excellent  service  in  educating 
the  people  to  greater  intelligence  and  foresight  in  the 
management  of  such  remnants  of  our  once  magnifi- 
cent forests  as  yet  remain ;  though  we  are  reminded  of 
the  old  saying  about  locking  the  stable  door  after  the 
horse  is  stolen.  The  new  policy  of  our  government  in 
setting  off  Forest  Reserves  in  the  unsold  lands  of  the 
Western  States,  particularly  in  the  mountain  regions, 
deserves  the  earnest  approval  and  support  of  all  citi- 
zens interested  in  the  future  welfare  of  our  country. 
Lumbermen,  generally,  have  blindly  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  the  woman  who  killed  the  goose  that  laid 
the  golden  eggs ;  and  the  future  good  of  our  land  ought 
not  to  be  left  longer  at  their  mercy. 

The  Wood  Lot. — But  we  need  not  look  upon  for- 
estry as  a  matter  which  concerns  only  the  far  off 
forests  of  the  North  and  West.  Every  farmer  who 
has  a  "wood  lot"  left  ought  to  understand  its  prin- 
ciples and  apply  them  to  his  own  possessions. 

Care  of  the  Wood  Lot. — The  importance  of  caring 
for  the  farm  wood  lot  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized. When  our  country  was  new  and  land  had  to 
be  cleared  to  make  room  for  the  crops,  farmers  cared 
little  for  timber  and  less  for  wood.  Great  trees  were 
cut  down  and  rolled  into  the  log  heap.  Good  material 
for  lumber  went  up  in  smoke,  and  in  those  days  no  one 
ever  thought  of  saving  wood.    But  now  all  is  changed. 


I  UNIVERSITY  J 

\^^^^OTuj;^    FORESTRY  165 

In  many  places  the  price  of  wood  is  exceedingly  high. 
Good  lumber  is  every  year  becoming  harder  to  get. 
We  have  awakened  to  the  fact  that  the  farmer  who 
has  a  wood  lot  on  his  farm  has  a  valuable  piece  of 
property. 

Management  of  the  Wood  Lot. — A  few  acres  of 
wood  land,  if  properly  managed,  will  furnish  wood 
and  other  timber  to  the  farmer  for  years  to  come. 
Now,  what  constitutes  proper  management  of  the 
wood  lot? 

First,  desirable  young  trees  should  be  kept  growing. 
Undesirable  ones  should  be  cut  out  and  used  for  fuel 
or  other  purposes. 

Second,  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  a  good  plan  to  pasture 
the  wood  lot.  Animals  injure  and  destroy  young 
trees  by  browsing  upon  them  and  gnawing  their  bark. 
Again,  their  sharp  hoofs  injure  the  roots,  and  their 
continuous  tramping  hardens  the  soil. 

Third,  if  grass  is  allowed  to  get  into  the  wood  lot 
it  starves  out  the  young  seedlings  or,  at  least,  checks 
their  growth.  This  is  another  good  reason  why  the 
wood  lot  should  never  be  pastured  or  seeded  to  grass. 

Fourth,  old  trees  and  dead  trees  should  be  carefully 
removed,  the  saw-timber  saved,  the  limbs  cut  into 
wood,  and  the  brush  piled  up  neatly.  As  a  rule,  it 
is  not  a  good  plan  to  burn  the  brush.  Many  young 
trees  are  killed  in  this  way. 

Fifth,  when  bare  spots  appear  in  the  wood  lot,  young 
trees  should  be  encouraged  to  grow  there,  either  by 
planting  seeds  or  young  trees.     Seedlings  should  be 


i66  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

thinned  so  that  they  will  not  starve  each  other  out, 
and  only  the  most  useful,  thrifty,  and  hardy  kinds 
should  be  planted. 

Profit  in  the  Wood  Lot. — With  a  little  care  and  at- 
tention on  the  part  of  the  farmer  the  wood  lot  may  be 
preserved  and  the  land  devoted  to  it  be  made  to  yield 
as  large  returns  as  other  acres  of  the  farm  which  are 
more  carefully  cultivated. 

Forests  Prevent  Droughts. — There  are  other  good 
reasons  why  forests  should  be  preserved  in  agricultural 
regions.  The  soil  in  the  woods  is  very  porous,  and 
capable  of  absorbing  large  quantities  of  water,  which 
runs 'off  from  cleared  land  and  is  wasted.  This  water 
is  stored  away  as  underground  water.  It  feeds  our 
wells  and  springs,  and,  moving  upward,  it  increases 
the  supply  of  capillary  water  in  the  soil,  and  thus  be- 
comes available  for  the  use  of  plants.  It  is  well 
known  that  forest  regions  are  seldom,  if  ever,  affected 
by  drought.  Then,  too,  forests  furnish  homes  for 
game,  which  all  farmer  boys  delight  in  hunting,  and 
for  birds  which  feed  upon  insects  that  would  injure 
our  crops,  if  they  were  not  held  in  check  by  the  birds. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Fanners'  Bulletins. 

No.  54. — Some  Common  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Agricul- 
ture. 

No.  150. — Clearing  New  Land. 
No.  173. — A  Primer  of  Forestry. 


FORESTRY  167 

Problems. 

1.  At  $6  per  cord,  what  is  the  vakte  of  a  pile  of 
wood  240  feet  long,  six  feet  high  and  four  feet  wide? 

2.  A  farmer  gets  six  cords  of  wood  from  ten  trees. 
With  wood  at  $5.50  per  cord,  what  is  the  value  of 
these  trees? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  a  single  tree  at  the  same 
rate? 

4.  Suppose  there  are  fifty  such  trees  on  an  acre, 
what  is  the  value  of  the  wood  on  this  piece  of  land? 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  a  wood  lot  of  fifteen  acres 
at  the  same  rate? 

6.  Suppose  a  farmer  removes  the  five  biggest  trees 
per  acre  from  his  wood  lot  each  year.  If  each  tree 
makes  ^  of  a  cord  of  wood,  worth  $6  per  cord,  and  it 
costs  80c  per  cord  for  cutting,  what  profit  does  he 
make  per  acre  on  his  wood  lot  ? 

7.  Compare  this  with  the  profit  on  an  acre  of  oats. 

8.  Compare  it  with  the  profit  on  an  acre  of  corn. 

9.  What  will  the  profit  on  a  twelve  acre  wood  lot 
be  at  the  same  rate  ? 

10.  Compare  this  with  the  profit  on  twelve  acres 
of  meadow. 

11.  Pupils  make  and  solve  similar  problems  from 
data  furnished  by  the  teacher,  themselves  or  their 
parents. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

InUuence  of  Home  Surroundings. — Beautiful  home 
surroundings  exert  an  educational  influence  on  the 
young,  and  add  to  the  enjoyment  of  life  for  all.  The 
proper  provision  of  such  surroundings  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  importance  to  all  who  have,  or  expect  to 
have,  homes  in  the  country.  The  tasteful  arrange- 
ment and  proper  planting  of  home  and  school  grounds 
require  much  thought  and  study  in  order  to  insure 
satisfactory  results. 

Principles  of  Landscape  Gardening. — In  all  land- 
scape gardening  two  principles  must  be  observed : 

First,  care  must  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  what 
is  to  be  planted.  A  bunch  of  flowers  does  not  neces- 
sarily constitute  a  bouquet;  intelligence  must  be  em- 
ployed in  their  selection  and  arrangement.  So  in  the 
planting  of  grounds  wisdom  must  be  exercised  in  the 
selection  and  distribution  of  plants,  trees,  and  shrubs 
in  order  to  produce  a  pleasing  and  durable  result. 
Consideration  should  be  given  to  the  nature  of  the 
surface  and  soil ;  and  the  location  of  everything  planted 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


[69 


should  harmonize  with  the  lay  of  the  land,  concealing 
defects  and  emphasizing  the  attractive  features. 

Second,  the  planting  itself  should  be  rightly  done, 
so  as  to  insure  proper  growth  and  permanence.  Ar- 
bor Day  has  been  celebrated  by  the  planting  of  many 
thousands  of  trees  throughout  the  Western  States; 
but,  in  all  probability,  not  10  per  cent  of  these  are 
alive  and  in  healthy  growth  at  the  present  time.     The 


A  COKNKH  OF  A  WELL  ARKANGED  SCHOOL  GROUND. 
(Whitewater,  Wis.,  Normal  School.) 

practice  of  planting  trees  and  naming  them  after  great 
men,  as  Grant,  Dewey,  and  the  like,  is  a  commend- 
able practice,  if  followed  by  proper  care  of  the  trees 
thus  planted;  but  quite  otherwise  if  the  trees  die  and 
are  consigned  to  the  brush  pile  through  neglect  of 
our  second  principle. 

Application  of  Principles. — In  order  to  apply  these 
two  principles  successfully,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a 


I70  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Study  of  the  grounds  and  also  of  the  character- 
istics of  trees  and  plants;  their  hardiness,  their  mode 
of  growth,  and  their  adaptation  to  the  soil  and  other 
conditions.  There  are  probably  not  more  than  a 
dozen  kinds  of  trees,  and  as  many  species  of  shrubs, 
that  are  adapted  to  planting  in  small  grounds,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  in  this  climate.  The  proper  loca- 
tion of  drives  and  walks  should  receive  due  considera- 
tion before  planting  begins.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  plant  trees  too  close  together,  or  else  there  should  be 
a  definite  plan  for  thinning  them  out  as  they  approach 
full  size.  We  should  try  to  picture,  not  the  small  tree 
that  we  plant,  but  the  tree  that  is  to  be. 

Selection  of  Trees  for  Planting. — Small,  thrifty 
trees  should  ordinarily  be  selected  for  planting,  rather 
than  large  ones.  They  are  more  likely  to  live  and 
will  be  larger  and  more  satisfactory  at  the  end  of  a 
few  years.  If  large  trees  are  planted,  they  should  be 
"headed  in"  unsparingly,  and  staked  firmly.  No  tree, 
large  or  small,  should  be  planted  which  is  blemished 
or  imperfect,  or  without  a  good  equipment  of  roots. 
Perhaps  the  majority  of  trees  are  practically  ruined 
by  the  destruction  of  roots  in  the  digging. 

Preparation  for  Planting. — In  preparation  for  plant- 
ing, the  holes  should  be  dug  at  least  four  feet  in 
diameter  and  two  feet  in  depth.  If  the  soil  is  hard 
and  poor,  it  should  be  replaced  by  good  earth ;  and  in 
every  case  the  trees  should  be  well  mulched  with  coarse 
litter  that  will  remain  in  place.  The  work  of  planting 
cannot  be  done  rightly  by  one  person  alone;  it  re- 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  GROUNDS  171 

quires  two,  one  to  handle  the  spade  and  one  to  handle 
the  tree  and  adjust  the  soil  properly  around  the  roots, 
which  should  be  spread  out  in  their  natural  position. 
Do  not  use  water  in  planting  unless  the  soil  is  dry, 
and  even  then  it  is  not  best  to  use  a  great  amount. 

Handling  of  the  Trees. — In  handling  the  trees  be- 
tween digging  and  planting,  great  care  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  fine,  fibrous  roots — which  are  the  really 
important  ones — from  becoming  dry  through  exposure 
to  sun  or  wind.  The  cut  ends  of  all  large  roots  should 
be  re-cut  smoothly  with  a  sharp  knife  immediately 
before  planting. 

Plants  Adapted  to  School  Grounds. — The  following 
trees  and  shrubs  have  been  planted  on  the  grounds  of  a 
certain  school,  viz. :  Arbor  Vitse,  Colorado  Blue 
Spruce,  Douglas  Fir,  Hemlock,  Norway  Spruce, 
Scotch  Pine,  Cut-leaved  Birch,  Norway  Maple,  Com- 
mon Barberry,  Thunberg's  Barberry,  Dogwood, 
Golden  Elder,  Japanese  Tree  Lilac,  Persian  Lilac, 
Syringa,  Rosa  Rugosa,  Russian  Olive,  Tartarian 
Honeysuckle,  Spirea  von  Houttei,  Snowball,  Clematis, 
and  Woodbine. 

Out  of  over  1,000  specimens  planted,  less  than  a 
dozen  failed  to  live  and  thrive,  since  care  was  taken 
to  follow  the  directions  given  above. 

Where  to  Secure  Plants. — Some  varieties  of  trees 
and  shrubs  may  be  dug  in  the  woods,  in  some  locali- 
ties; but  it  is  generally  better,  for  school  use,  to  get 
them  right  from  the  ground,  from  a  reputable  nursery- 
man, or  from  the  gardens  of  people  who  are  willing  to 


172  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

contribute   them.      Sometimes   they  can   be  procured 
without  cost  from  State  Experiment  Stations. 

The  planting  of  home  grounds  may,  perhaps,  be  less 
elaborate  than  that  of  public  grounds;  but  it  needs 
no  less  care  and  attention  to  right  methods.  Such 
work  *'pays  in  the  heart ;"  and  no  other  work  pays  so 
well  as  that  which  tends  toward  happy,  cheerful  life. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

rarmers*  Bulletins. 

No.  134. — Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds. 
No.  185. — Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 
Extracts. 

No.    91. — Lawns  and  Lawn  Making. 

Problems. 

1.  Measure  the  lot  at  home  on  which  the  house 
stands.  How  many  square  yards  in  it?  How  many 
square  rods? 

2.  Draw  a  plan  by  scale  of  this  lot,  locating  build- 
ings, trees,  flower  beds,  etc. 

3.  Is  there  any  way  in  which  this  plan  might  be 
improved  or  the  appearance  of  the  grounds  made 
more  pleasing? 

4.  Draw  another  plan  showing  location  of  build- 
ings, flower  beds,  trees,  walks,  and  drives  as  you 
would  like  to  have  them  arranged. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


SCHOOL  GARDENING    • 


The  Development  of  School  Gardening. — It  has 
been  a  common  practice  in  several  European  countries, 
for  fully  a  century,  to  conduct  gardens  in  connection 
with  schools.  This  idea  of  making  gardening  a  part 
of  school  work  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  in  our  own 
country.  The  garden  is  a  matter  of  great  practical 
importance  to  all  people  living  in  the  country,  and  it 
can  be  made  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  work  of  almost 
any  school,  if  intelligently  managed. 

Value  of  the  Garden. — The  study  of  agriculture  has 
rightly  been  made  a  required  subject  in  the  schools  of 
some  states,  and  this  must  include  some  attention  to 
gardening.  The  home  garden  ought  to  be  the  best 
part  of  the  farm.  And  no  department  of  agriculture 
is  so  well  calculated  to  develop  in  boys  and  girls  the 
power  of  keen  observation  and  love  for  the  beauty, 
variety  and  harmony  which  nature  exhibits  as  that  of 
gardening.  Therefore,  it  is  important  that  we  do 
something  with  school  gardening  in  order  to  assist 
and  encourage  home  gardening. 

Sise  and  Shape. — The  size  and  shape  of  the  school 


174 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


garden  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  area  and  form 
of  the  lot.  The  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  must 
be  taken  into  account  when  we  come  to  the  decision 
of  what  shall  be  planted. 

Arrangement  of  School  Grounds. — The  school  gar- 
den must  not  encroach  upon  the  playground;  play- 
grounds are  an  absolute  necessity.     If  the  school  lot  is 


1                                    ||H^^^^dH^^HH^H||i|^H|^HI| 

■ 

i  ^  **-W 

1 

i^^ifc  *^ 

n 

— ._ — . , , 

GIRLS'    SCHOOL   GARDEN,   YONKERS,   N.   Y. 

very  small,  the  corners  and  strips  along  the  fences 
may  be  used  for  garden  purposes.  If  the  grounds  are 
large  enough,  the  following  arrangement  is  a  good 
one:  Place  the  flower-beds  towards  the  front  of  the 
grounds,  on  each  side  of  the  front  lawn.  Back  of  the 
flower-beds,  and  next  to  the  playgrounds,  is  a  good 
location  for  shrubbery  of  various  kinds.  In  the  rear 
of  the  playground  we  may  place  the  vegetable  garden. 
Shrubs  and  vines  may  be  planted  along  the  back  fence, 
with  perhaps  a  border  of  wild  flowers,  ferns,  etc.    We 


SCHOOL  GARDENING  175 

shall  then  have  an  arrangement  like  this,  viz.,  front 
lav^n,  paths,  tlower-beds,  playgrounds,  vegetable  gar- 
den, wild  flowers,  vines,  etc. 

The  Flower  Beds. — In  the  flower  beds  a  variety  of 
plants  may  be  grown,  but  good  sense  will  be  necessary 
in  their  selection;  success  will  depend  greatly  on  this. 
Such,  hardy  bulbs  as  tulips,  crocuses,  and  narcissuses 


HI  1  11 

-     -■-     ii 

1^' 

I. 


m. 


BOYS'   SCHOOL  GARDKN,   YONKKIiS,   N.   Y. 

should  be  included  for  spring  blooming.  Peonies,  iris, 
phlox  and  other  hardy  perennials,  should  have  a  place, 
as  they  survive  from  year  to  year  with  comparatively 
little  trouble.  Of  annuals,  only  the  more  robust  and 
easily  grown  should  be  attempted,  such-  as  asters,  pe- 
tunias, poppies,  nasturtiums  and  zinnias.  Regard 
should  always  be  had  to  the  water  supply,  as  it  is  hard 
to  grow  beautiful  flowers  in  hot  weather  without  plenty 
of  water.  A  flower  bed  withering  for  want  of  mois- 
ture is  a  sorry  sight.    Weeds,  which  grow  rapidly  and 


176  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

rob  the  plants  of  light,  water  and   food,   should  be 
carefully  kept  under. 

Essentials  of  Gardening. — In  preparing  the  ground 
for  planting,  great  care  and  patience  should  be  exer- 
cised in  enriching  it  and  thoroughly  pulverizing  the 
top  soil.  Care  should  also  be  taken  not  to  plant  the 
seeds  too  deep,  and  not  to  let  the  surface  become  too 
dry  while  the  seeds  are  germinating.  These  are  funda- 
mental requirements  in  all  gardening. 

List  of  Plants  That  May  Be  Grown. 

Vegetables  :  Peas,  potatoes,  sweet  corn,  pop  corn,  tomatoes, 
beans,  lettuce,  cabbages,  cucumbers,  radishes,  beets,  onions,  par- 
snips, turnips,  etc. 

Flowers,  Perennials  :  Phlox,  hollyhocks,  sweet  William,  iris, 
hemerocallis„  columbine,  monkshood,  etc. 

Annuals:  Asters,  four-o-clocks,  marigolds,  petunias,  nas- 
turtiums, poppies,  mignonette,  sweet  alyssum,  phlox  Drummondii, 
coreopsis,  zinnias,  sweet  peas,  etc. 

Bedding  Plants  :     Verbenas,  geraniums,  salvia,   etc. 

The  above  list  might  be  greatly  extended,  but  these  are  the 
things  of  easiest  culture  and  surest  returns.  Probably  no  one 
will  attempt  to  grow  all  of  these  in  the  same  summer,  but 
variety  will  be  sought  from  season  to  season.  It  is  better  to 
grow  a  few  things  well  than  to  attempt  more  than  can  be  given 
thorough  attention. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Farmers'  Bulletins. 

No.  218. — The  School  Garden. 
Extracts. 

No.  113. — Experimental  Gardens  and  Grounds. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


HOME  GAEDENING 


General  Statement. — What  has  been  said  about  the 
school  garden  will,  much  of  it,  apply  equally  well  to 
the  management  of  the  home  flower  garden.  In  con- 
nection with  country  schools,  vegetable  gardening  will 
not  often  be  undertaken,  as  that  requires  more  room 
and  is  more  naturally  connected  with  the  home  life; 
but  city  school  children  often  develop  great  interest  in 
the  growing  of  vegetables. 

Importance  of  the  Garden. — Every  family  in  the 
country  should  pay  great  attention  to  the  garden,  be- 
cause of  the  profit  and  satisfaction  which  it  affords. 
No  other  part  of  the  farm  of  equal  area  pays  one- 
tenth  as  well,  financially,  as  a  well-cultivated  garden. 
Yet  the  garden  is  very  apt  to  be  neglected,  and  left  to 
itself  by  farmers  generally,  from  the  mistaken  idea 
that  other  work  is  more  important.  It  is  important, 
moreover,  that  the  children  in  the  home  be  trained 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  garden ;  for  this  furnishes 
one  of  the  best  means  for  stimulating  a  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  inspiring  things  of  life.  The  treatment 
of  the  subject  of  gardening  in  this  book  must  neces- 


178  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

sarily  be  very  general.  Gardening  includes  something 
of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  floriculture.  It  is 
not  advisable  that  the  garden  should  be  very  large  or 
elaborate,  so  that  its  care  will  become  burdensome. 
The  flower  garden  should  not  be  located  directly  in 
front  of  the  house,  but  at  one  side.  It  is  not  well  to 
place  a  flower  bed  in  the  middle  of  the  lawn.  Neither 
should  the  front  lawn  be  crowded  with  trees  and  shrub- 
bery; there  should  be  a  good,  clear  stretch  of  grass, 
with  the  shrubbery  around  the  skirts  of  it.  The  vege- 
table garden  should  be  at  the  back  of  the  house,  or 
well  to  one  side  of  the  lawn  and  flower  garden.  It 
should  be  well  fenced  against  poultry  and  other  do- 
mestic animals. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  soil  should  be  well 
fertilized  with  barnyard  manure.  Neglect  of  this  is 
fatal  to  the  best  results.  Weeds  will  grow  in  any  soil, 
but  good  vegetables  require  good  soil  as  well  as  good 
cultivation.  In  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  and  in 
planting,  the  following  points  should  receive  attention : 

(i)  Plow  carefully  and  well,  so  that  all  grass, 
weeds,  manure,  or  litter  will  be  thoroughly  turned 
under.     Do  not  plow  when  the  ground  is  very  wet. 

(2)  Harrow  and  rake  until  the  top  soil  is  fine, 
removing  sticks  and  stones. 

(3)  The  depth  at  which  seeds  should  be  planted 
depends,  largely,  upon  the  size  of  the  seeds.  Small 
seeds  should  be  covered  slightly  but  evenly.  The 
character  of  the  soil  is  also  to  be  considered.    In  light. 


HOME  GARDENING  179 

sandy  soil,  or  in  situations  exposed  to  the  wind,  plant- 
ing should  be  deeper  than  under  other  conditions. 

(4)  Many  people  err  in  building  up  the  beds  too 
high  above  the  level  of  the  paths,  as  the  soil  dries  out 
rapidly  when  thus  raised.  If  the  beds  can  be  worked 
from  both  sides,  which  is  better,  they  may  be  made 
four  or  five  feet  wide.  If  they  cannot  be  worked  from 
both  sides,  three  feet  is  about  the  limit  of  width. 

(5)  The  seeds  should  be  planted  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  admit  of  passing  a  hoe  freely  between 
them.  Flower  seeds  should,  as  a  rule,  be  planted  in 
rows  crosswise  of  the  beds.  Judgment  should  be  ex- 
ercised as  to  the  time  of  planting.  Onions,  peas  and 
potatoes  may  be  planted  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked.  Flower  seeds,  as  a  rule,  should  not  be  planted 
until  the  ground  is  warm  and  danger  from  frost  is 
past.  Sweet  peas,  however,  may  be  planted  early  and 
very  deep.  All  peas  should  be  planted  at  least  three, 
or  even  four,  inches  deep.  They  should  be  planted  in 
rows  running  north  and  south  and  provided  with 
proper  support. 

(6)  The  transplanting  of  cabbages,  tomatoes,  etc., 
should  be  done  on  a  cloudy  day,  or  towards  evening. 
Plants  should  be  set  rather  deep,  and  shaded  from 
the  next  day's  sun  by  a  shingle  or  other  shield. 

(7)  The  surface  of  seed  beds  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  become  dry  or  hard  during  the  time  of  germi- 
nation. After  plants  are  above  the  surface,  the  ground 
should  be  frequently  stirred  to  prevent  its  baking  or 
drying  out,  and  to  keep  down  weeds,  which  are  much 


i8o  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

more  easily  killed  while  they  are  young.  Properly  thin 
out  the  plants.  Great  harm  is  done  by  over-crowding. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  common  mistakes. 

(8)  All  vines,  as  cucumbers,  melons  and  squashes 
should  be  carefully  watched  as  they  show  the  first 
leaves,  to  protect  them  from  the  bugs.  The  best  pro- 
tection is  to  sprinkle  them,  dry,  with  Hammond's 
"Slug  Shot,"  a  preparation  which  no  gardener  can 
afford  to  be  without,  as  it  is  especially  useful  for  de- 
stroying the  slugs  on  cabbages,  currant  and  gooseberry 
bushes,  and  rose  bushes.  It  is  much  safer  as  well  as 
cheaper  than  paris  green.  For  potatoes,  however, 
nothing  else  is  so  effective  as  paris  green  in  water. 

Free  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

No.    94. — The  Vegetable  Garden. 

No.  154. — The  Home  Fruit  Garden:    Preparation  and  Care. 
No.  156. — The    Home    Vineyard,    with    Special    Reference    to 
Northern  Conditions. 
No.  198. — Strawberries. 
No.  213. — Raspberries. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

BARN  PLAN  AND  VENTILATION 

(Explanation  of  Barn  Plan  on  Opposite  Page.) 

A — Feed  chutes  and  ventilating  shafts,  35^x4  feet. 
B — Feed  bins,  3^x7  feet.  C — Hay  mows,  20x40 
feet.  D — Trap  doors  to  stairs,  3x3  feet.  F — Barn 
floor,  14x40  feet.  G — Driveway,  10x55  feet.  H — 
Horse  stalls,  5x5  feet.  I — Mangers,  3x5  feet.  J — Al- 
leys, 5x15  feet.  K — Alleys,  5x40  feet.  L — Small 
feed  spouts  from  bins.  M — Mangers,  3,^x35  feet. 
O — Alleys,  2x15  feet.  P — Cow  spaces,  3)^x454  feet. 
R — Drop,  1x35  feet.  S — S — Double  doors.  T — Win- 
dows hinged  for  ventilation.  U — Alleys,  5x15  feet. 
V — Stairs  to  second  floor. 

Suggested  modifications  of  plan  to  suit  convenience 
of  builder: — Position  and  number  of  bins  and  feed 
chutes  may  be  changed.  Dimensions  may  be  cut  down 
by  making  alleys  narrower.  Horses  may  face  wall. 
Partition  may  be  left  out.  Doors  may  be  hung  on 
hinges  instead  of  rollers,  etc.,  etc. 

Importance  of  Ventilation. — In  our  efforts  to  pro- 
vide warm  and  comfortable  quarters  for  our  stock, 
we  have  overlooked,  in  many  cases,  the  most  impor- 
tant matter  of  all, — proper  ventilation. 


l82 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


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FIRST  FLO  OR  PLAN 

PLAN  FOR  CONVENIENT   TWO-STORY  BARN, 
Dimensions  40x55  Feet, 


BARN  VENTILATION 


183 


VENTILATION  PLAN. 


As  we  enter  some  stables  on  a  winter's  morning, 
after  the  barn  has  been  closed  all  night,  we  are  almost 
stifled  by  the  odors  and  impurities  that  fill  the  air. 
These  must  be  very  harmful  to  the  animals  that  are 
forced  to  breathe  them  over  and  over  again.     In  such 


E 

WINDOW  VENTILATION    PLAN. 


Note:  The  above  is  a  modification  of  the  "King  System"  of 
ventilation,  a  system  in  successful  operation  on  some  of  our 
best  dairy  farms. 


i84  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Stables  no  provision  is  made  for  admitting  fresh  air, 
or  for  drawing  off  that  which  has  become  charged 
with  impurities  and  robbed  of  its  Hfe-giving  oxygen. 
Without  doubt  the  alarming  prevalence  of  tubercu- 
losis among  cattle  is  largely  due  to  this  neglect. 

Plan  for  a  Ventilated  Barn. — This  neglected  feature 
of  barn  construction  is  deemed  worthy  of  special  men- 
tion in  this  book.  On  the  following  pages  will  be 
found  detail  plans  for  a  barn  provided  with  an  ade- 
quate system  of  ventilation. 

A — Cross  section,  through  feed  chutes  and  venti- 
lating shafts,  of  the  barn  shown  on  preceding  page. 
B — Cross  section  of  the  same  barn,  through  ventilat- 
ing shafts,  placed  at  the  ends,  on  either  side  of  the 
double  doors.  This  method  will,  doubtless,  be  pre- 
ferred by  some  farmers,  as  it  will  allow  of  keeping 
feed  chutes  filled  with  hay,  sufficient  for  several  feed- 
ings. However,  it  is  not  a  wise  plan  to  leave  hay 
thrown  down  in  the  stables,  as  it  will  absorb  the  im- 
pure air  and  bad  odors  of  the  barn.  In  both  cases  feed 
chutes  must  be  kept  closed,  in  order  to  insure  proper 
draft  to  ventilating  shafts.  C — Vertical  section 
through  floor,  feed  chute  and  ventilating  shaft,  show- 
ing trap  dooi%  closed  to  insure  proper  circulation  of 
air.  D — Same,  showing  trap  door  open  for  feeding. 
E — Cross  section  of  same  at  the  second  floor.  Size 
of  chute,  3x3^  feet.  Size  of  ventilating  shaft, 
1/2x3^  feet.  F — Section  through  wall  and  window, 
showing-    sheetiron    wind-shield,    thrown    back,    and 


BARN  VENTILATION  185 

window  open  for  summer  ventilation.  G — Same, 
showing  shield  in  place  for  winter  ventilation. 

Note  I.  This  shield  is  made  of  sheet  or  galvanized 
iron,  bent,  as  shown  in  sections  E  and  F  above,  and 
screwed  to  the  window  frame.  When  in  place  it  de- 
flects the  air  upward  towards  the  ceiling,  preventing 
drafts.  The  opening  between  this  shield  and  the  win- 
dow frame  for  the  admission  of  air  should  be  about 
two  inches  in  width.  When  the  shield  is  raised 
slightly,  it  allows  the  window  to  drop  forward  on  its 
hinges  at  the  bottom  and  to  open  fully. 

Note  II.  If  round  iron  pipes  are  used  for  venti- 
lating instead  of  flues,  they  should  be  not  less  than 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  Their  tops  may  be  cov- 
ered with  revolving  hoods,  specially  constructed  to 
create  drafts.  If  less  than  four  ventilating  shafts  are 
used,  they  should  be  large  enough  to  have  the  same 
capacity. 

The  bottoms  of  all  ventilating  shafts  should  open 
not  more  than  one  foot  above  the  floor,  and  these 
openings  should  always  be  kept  free  from  hay,  straw 
or  anything  else  that  will  prevent  a  free  circulation 
of  air. 

CORN  AND  STOCK  JUDGING 

The  following  score  cards  for  corn  and  stock  judg- 
ing are  the  ones  in  use  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
and  are  here  reproduced,  by  permission,  with  the  hope 
that  they  will  prove  of  value  to  those  who  are  inter- 


i86  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

ested  in  these  more  advanced  phases  of  agriculture. 
They  are  easily  understood  and  require  no  additional 
explanation. 

OFFICIAL  CORN  SCORE  CARD 

Note:    Ten  ears  of  corn  constitute  a  sample  for  scoring. 
EXPLANATION  OF  POINTS  IN  CORN  JUDGING 

1.  Trueness  to  Type  or  Breed  Characteristics  :    The  ten  ears 

of  the  sample  should  possess  similar  or  like  characteristics 
and  should  be  true  to  the  variety  which  they  represent. 

2.  Shape  of  Ear:     The  shape  of  the  ear  should  conform  to 

variety  type,  tapering  slightly  from  butt  to  tip,  but 
approaching  the  cylindrical. 

3.  Color:    a.  Grain;  b.  Cob:     Color  of  grain  should  be  true 

to  variety  and  free  from  mixture.  White  corn  should 
have  white  cobs,  yellow  corn  red  cobs. 

4.  Market  Condition  :     The  ears  should  be  sound,  firm,  well 

matured  and  free  from  mold,  rot  or  injuries. 

5.  Tips  :     The  tips  of  the  ears  should  not  be  too  tapering  and 

should  be  well  filled  with  regular,  uniform  kernels. 

6.  Butts  :      The    rows    of   kernels    should    extend    in    regular 

order  over  the  butt,  leaving  a  deep  impression  when  the 
shank  is  removed.  Opened  and  swelled  butts  are  objec- 
tionable. 

7.  Kernels:    a.  Uniformity  of;  b.   Shape  of:     The  kernels 

should  be  uniform  in  shape,  size  and  color,  and  true  to  the 
variety  type.  The  kernels  should  be  so  shaped  that  their 
edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown.  The  tip  portion  of  the 
kernel  is  the  richest  in  protein  and  oil  and  hence  of  the 
highest  feeding  value.  For  this  reason  the  tip  portion 
should  be  full  and  plump. 

8.  Length  of  Ear:     Northern  section  8  to  9  inches,  central 

section  8^4  to  9^4  inches,  southern  section  8^  to  9^ 
inches.  Long  ears  are  objectionable  because  they  usually 
have  poor  butts  and  tips,  broad,  shallow  kernels,  and 
hence  a  low  percentage  of  corn  to  cob. 


SCORE  CARDS 


187 


9.  Circumference  of  Ear:  Northern  section  6  to  6J/2  inches, 
central  section  6%  to  6^  inches,  southern  section  6^/4  to  7 
inches. 

10.  A.  Furrow  Between  Rows;  b.  Space  Between  Furrows  at 

Cob:  The  furrow  between  the  rows  of  kernels  should  be 
small.  Space  between  kernels  near  the  cob  is  very  objec- 
tionable. 

11.  Proportion  of  Corn  to  Cob:     The  proportion  of  corn  to 

cob  is  determined  by  weight;  depth  of  kernels,  size  of 
cob  and  maturity  all  affect  the  proportion. 


OFFICIAL  CORN  SCORE  CARD 


1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

1  Trueness    to    Type    or 

Breed  characteris- 
tics      10 

2  Shape  of  ear 10 

3  Color:  a.  Grain 5 

b.  Cob 5 

4  Market  condition...  10 

5  Tips    5 

6  Butts    5 

7  Kernels:    a.    Unifor- 

mity of  10 
b.  S  h  a  p  e 
of   5 

8  Length  of  ear 10 

9  Circumference       0  f 

ear    5 



.... 

■z 

.... 

..... 

.... 

.... 



.... 





.... 

.... 

10  Space:  a.  Furrow 

between 

rows    . .     5 

b.  Space  be- 

t  w  e  e  n 

kernels 

at  cob.     5 

11  Proportion    of   Corn 
to   Cob    10 

Total    100 

— 









— 







i88 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 
BEEF  CATTLE  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 26   POINTS 
Weight,    estimated    lbs. 

according  to  age 

Form,     straight    top     line    and    underline; 

deep,  broad,  low  set 

Quality,    firm    handling,    hair    fine,    pliable 

skin,  fine  bone;   evenly  fleshed 

Style,    active,    upstanding 

Temperament,   quiet,    docile 


HEAD   AND   NECK— 8  POINTS 

Muzzle,  good   size,   mouth  large,   lips   thin 

nostrils  large   

Eyes,   large,    clear,    placid 

Face,   short,   quiet  expression 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Neck,  thick,   short;   throat  clean 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 


FOREQUARTERS— 13  POINTS 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

Shoulder,   covered   with   fiesh,    compact   on 

top,  snug   

Breast,  wide;   brisket  prominent 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping... 
Legs,  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine, 

smooth    


BODY— 28  POINTS 

Chest,   full,   deep,   wide;   girth   large,    fore- 
flank  full 

Crops,  full,  even   with  shoulders 

Ribs,  deep,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Back,  broad,   straight,   evenly  fleshed 

Loin,    thick,    broad 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline 


HINDQUARTERS— 25  POINTS 
Hips,   smoothly  covered,   distance  apart  in 

proportion   with   other   parts 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide;  tail  head  smooth; 

not   patchy    

Pin  Bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 

Thighs,  full,  wide,   deep 

Twist,    deep,    plump 

Purse,   full,   indicating  fleshiness 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth... 

Total    


Points  Deficient 


Score 


SCORE  CARDS 
DAIRY  CATTLE  SCORE  CARD 


189 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

ii 

Points  Deflcleut 

Score 

Cor- 
rected 

GENERAL   APPEARANCE— 17    POINTS 

Weight,  800  to  1,000  lbs.,  estimated 

Form,   wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front, 
side   and    top 

6 
4 

8 

2 
2 
2 
2 

1 

4 

4 
2 
1    < 

4 
10 
8 

' 

2 

4 

1 
6 
1 

18 

4 

6 

i 

Quality,  hair  fine,  soft;  skin  mellow,  loose; 
medium      thickness,      secretion      yellow; 
bone   clean     fine 

Temperament,       nervous,        indicated       by 
marked    refinement    in    head,    neck    and 
forequarters;    backbone   prominent 

HEAD  AND    NECK— 13   POINTS 

Muzzle,    clean    cut;    mouth    large;    nostrils 
wide    

Eyes,  large    bright     full 

Face,  clear  cut,  long,  quiet  expression 

Ears,  medium  size;  yellow  inside;  fine  tex- 

Neck,    fine,    medium    length;    throat    clean, 
light    dewlap    

FOREQUARTERS— 7    POINTS 
Shoulder,  light,  sloping,  very  thin  at  top... 
Breast,   pointed"   brisket  light 

Lpa^     'itmifi'ht      <3Vinrt'    <aVmnlf    fin*» 

BODY— 20  POINTS 
Chest,  deep  and  moderately  wide 

Ribs,  broad,  deep,  wide  apart;  large  barrel. 

Back,  prominent,   open  jointed 

HINDQUARTERS— 43   POINTS 

Hips,   fur  apart,   prominent;   level  with  the 
back    

Rump,  long,  wide;  pelvis,  roomy  

Tall,     set     high,     long,      tapering,     heavy 
switch 

Thighs,  thin,   long,   wide-apart;   twist  very 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over  thighs,  extend- 
ing high  and  wide;   large  thigh  ovals 

Udder,   broad,   symmetrical,   extending  well 
forward,  well  up  between  the  thighs,  free 
from    fleshiness,   well   held   up   and   quar- 
ters even   in   size 

Teats,  good  size,  evenly  placed 

Milk     Veins,     large,     tortuous,     branching, 
milk  wells  large,   numerous 

Legs,  straight,  far  apart,  shank  fine 

Total       

100 

190 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 
DRAFT  HORSE  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Age     

GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 29  POINTS 

Height,  estimated    

hands ;    actual    


Points  Deficient 


Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Weight,    over   1,600   lbs.;    estimated 

lbs.,  score  according-  to  age 

Form,  broad,  massive,  evenly  proportioned, 

symmetrical,  blocky   

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  large,  strong, 
tendons  clean,  defined,  prominent;  skin 
and  hair,  fine;  "feather,"  if  present, 
silky     

Action,  walk;  fast,  elastic,  regular, 
straight;  trot,  free,  springy,  balanced, 
straight     

Temperament,  energetic;  disposition,  good. 

HEAD  AND   NECK— 8  POINTS 

Head,    proportionate    size,    clean    cut,    well 

carried;   profile   straight 

IVIuzzle,    neat;    nostrils    large,    flexible;    lips 

thin,    even,   firm 

Eyes,  bright,  clear,  full,  same  color 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried  alert 

Lower  Jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean 

Neck,    muscled,    arched;    throat-latch   fine; 

windpipe   large    

FOREQUARTERS— 22  POINTS 
Shoulder,  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug, 

extending  into  back 

Arm,  short,   strong  muscled,   thrown  back, 

well   set    

Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  mus- 
cled     

Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean.. 
Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean, 

defined,    prominent    

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean. 
Feet,   large,   even  size,   sound;   horn  dense, 

waxy;    soles    concave;    bars    strong,    full; 

frogs  large,   elastic;   heels  wide,   one-half 

length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 


SCORE  CARDS 
DRAFT  HORSE  SCORE  CARD— Continued 


191 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

li 

Points  Deficient 

score 

Cor- 
rected 

BODY— 9    POINTS 

Chest,  deep,  wide;  breast  bone  low;  girth, 

2 

Ribs,   deep,   well  sprung;    closely  ribbed   to 

hip                                               

2 

Back,  broad,  short,  strong  muscular 

1 

2 

1 

HINDQUARTERS— 32  POINTS 

Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled.. 
Croup,    wide,    heavily   muscled,    not   mark- 

2 

2 

Back,  broad,   short,   strong,   muscular 

3 

2 

Stifles,  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean 

Gasklns    (lower  thighs),   long,   wide,   clean. 

2 

heavily  muscled 

2 

Hocks,    large,    strong,    wide,    deep,    clean. 

well   set 

8 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean. 

(\f>i\nff\       riromtn*>nt 

2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean. 

1 

2 

Feet,  large,   even   size,   sound;   horn  dense, 

waxy,    soles    concave;    bars    strong,    full; 

frogs  large,   clastic;   heels  wide,  one-half 

length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 

6 

Total    

100 

192 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 
SWINE  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

11 

Points  Deficient 

Score 

Cor- 
rected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE^25  POINTS 
Weight estimated actual 

6 

8 
6 
6 

2 
3 

6 
2 

5 

8 

7 
6 
3 
2 

3 
4 

8 

5 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical, 
compact,  standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality,  bone  clean;  hair  silky;  skin  fine... 

Disposition,    quiet 

HEAD  AND   NECK— 10  POINTS 
Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 

Eyes,  large,  mild,  full,  bright,  wide  apart.. 

Forehead,    broad 

Face,  short,  cheeks  full 

Ears,  medium,  size,  fine,  soft 

Jowl,   strong    neat,   broad 

Neck    thick    medium  length 

FOREQUARTERS— 13  POINTS 

Shoulder,    broad,     deep,    full,     compact    on 
top    

Breast,    wide,    prominent 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;   feet  medium 

BODY— 32  POINTS 

Chest,  deep,  broad;   girth  large 

Sides,  deep,  lengthy,  closely  ribbed 

Back,   broad,    straight,    thickly   and   evenly 
fleshed          

Loin     thick     wide 

RaIIv     estmie'hf           

Fl;ink    even  with  underline 

HINDQUARTERS— 20  POINTS 

l-llne      xi7ir1p    nnfirt      «!moot?l                 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  straight. 
uiame     Vif^nvilv    flp<!Vief1     f^een     'wide                .  . 

Legs,  straight,  short,   strong;  feet  medium 
size    

100 

SCORE  CARDS 
MUTTON  SHEEP  SCORE  CARD 


193 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Age    Teeth. 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 24  POINTS 

Weight estimated    actual 

lbs.,  according  to  age 

Form,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  compact, 
and  evenly  covered  with  firm  flesh 

Quality,  clean  bone;  silky  hair 

Temperament    

HEAD  AND   NECK— 9  POINTS 

Muzzle,  fair  size;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin; 
mouth  large    

Eyes,    full,    bright 

Face,  short,   bold  expression 

Forehead,  broad  

Ears,    fine,    erect 

Neck,   thick,   shoit;   throat  clean 

FOREQUARTERS— 13  POINTS 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

Shoulders,   covered,    compact 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large,  girth 

Brisket,   full,   prominent,   breast  wide 

Legs,    straight,    short,    wide   apart,    strong; 

forearm  full,  shank  smooth 

BODY— 13  POINTS 

Back,    straight.-  wide 

Loin,    broad,    thick 

Ribs,   deep,    arched 

Flank,  low,  thick,  making  underline 
straight    

HINDQUARTERS— 17  POINTS 

Hips,  smooth,  far  apart 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide 

Thighs,  full,  well  fleshed 

Twist,    plump,    deep 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth 
CONSTITUTION— 10  POINTS 

Girth,   large    

Skin,   pink  color 

Fleece,    dense    and    even    over    body,    yolk 

abundant    

WOOL— 14  POINTS 

Quantity,  long,   dense,  even 

Quality,  fine,  soft,  pure,  even 

Condition,  bright,  strong,  clean 


Total    100 


£  o 

I* 


Points  Deficient 


Score 


Cor- 
rect d 


INDEX 


Accounts,  farm,  154-158. 
Acid,  carbonic,  24,  25. 

phosphoric,  2"],  39. 

sulphuric,  28. 
Acids,  as  plant  foods,  18. 

uses  of,  21,  24. 
Ammonia,  24. 
Annuals,  87. 
Alfalfa  field,  illustration,  52. 

Babcock  tester,  122,  124. 

illustration,  122. 
Bacteria,  use  of,  50. 

in  milk,  120-122. 
Bam,  plan,  181-185. 

ventilation,  181-185. 
Beets,  advantages  of,  138. 

compared  with  other  plants, 

137. 
Biennials,  87. 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  80,  83. 
Butter,  118. 

Carbohydrates,  101-105. 
Carbonic  acid,  24,  25. 
Cheese,  118. 

Clover,     restores    nitrogen    to 
soil,  52,  112,  113. 

and    alfalfa    roots,    illustra- 
tion, 51. 
Corn,  113. 

Corn  field,  illustration,  59. 
Corn  judging,  186,  187. 
Cow,  Jersey,  illustration,  119. 

Holstein  -  Friesian,      illustra- 
tion, 120. 

Red-Polled,  illustration,   121. 
Cow-barn,   model,    illustration. 


Cows,  corn  and  clover,  114,  115. 
in  a  clover  field,  illustration, 

113. 
Cotyledons,  10. 
Cream    separator,    illustration, 

122. 
Crop  rotation,  70-72. 

plan  of,  70. 

results  of,  70. 
Cropping,  effect  of  unwise,  69. 
Cultivation,     retards     evapora- 
tion, 59. 
Crops,  special,  135. 

Dairy,  cleanliness  in,  119,   120. 

products  of,  118. 
Dicotyledons,  10. 
Ditches,  open,  66. 
Drainage,  65,  66. 

tiling,  66. 

open  ditches,  66. 

Embryo,  of  plant,  10. 
illustration,  10. 

Farm  accounts,  154-158. 

buildings,  146-148. 

arrangement,  146-148. 

construction,  149. 

illustration,  147. 

silo,  149,  150. 
Farming,  diversified,  112. 

kind  depends  on  local  condi- 
tions, 115. 
Fat,  feeding  value,  104. 
Fats,  100. 

Feeding,   economy   in,    104. 
Fertility,  how  retained,  45. 


196 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fertilizer,    effect    of,    illustra- 
tion, 40. 
in  stock  food,  93. 
the  best,  38. 
Fertilizers,    commercial,    39-42. 

plants  as,  39. 
Fertilizing      substances,      table 
showmg  amount  of  in  farm 
crops,  29. 
table   showing  amount  of  in 

average  soils,  35. 
table  showing  amount  of  in 

dairy  products,  46. 
table   showing  amount  of  in 

farm  animals,  46. 
table   showing  amount  of  in 
fertilizers,  42. 
Foods,  classification  of,  100. 
different  uses  of,  102,  103. 
importance  of  right  selection, 

100, 
special  kinds  needed,  103. 
special  proportions,  103. 
experimental    study    of,    105, 
106. 
Flower  beds,  175. 
Forest,  destruction  of,  162,  163. 
economic  use  of,  163,  164. 
illustration,  147. 
importance  of,  161. 
influence  of,  161,  162. 
nature  of,  161. 
edge  of,  illustration,  162. 
Forests  prevent  drought,  166. 
Formaldehyde,  80,  83. 

Gardening,  essentials  of,  176. 

home,  177-180. 

home  and  school,  168-172. 

school,  173-176. 
Germination,  11. 
Glacial    drift   and    rock    decay, 
31,  32. 

illustration,  32. 
Graduate,  how  made,  26. 

Handy  values,  15. 
Hens,  illustration,  131. 


Harvest  time,  illustration,  71. 
Herd,  selection  of,  124. 
How  plants  store  food,  10. 

use  water,  19. 
Humus,  33. 

Insect  growth,  stages  of,  illus- 
tration, 77. 
Insects  and  plant  diseases,  76. 

experimental  study  of,  81. 

kinds,  78. 

how  destroyed,  78. 

life  of,  77. 
Iron-rust,  23. 

Legumes,  49,  50,  51. 
Lime,  23. 
Loam,  33. 

Magnesia,  25. 

Marshy   land   before   drainage, 
illustration,  64. 
after     drainage,     illustration, 

65- 
Milk,  bacteria  in,  120,  121. 
bad  odors  in,  120. 
care  of,  120,  121,  122. 
experimental    study    of,    125- 

127. 
separator,  119. 
Milking,  necessary  precautions 

in,  122,  123. 
Moisture,  regulation  of,  20. 

Nitrogen,  in  soil,  38. 
in  the  air,  50. 
nature  of,  50, 
preparation  of,  28.. 
restoration  of,  to  soil,  52. 

Oat  smut,  how  destroyed,  80. 
Onion     growing,      illustration, 

133. 
Onions,  advantages  of  raising, 

140,  141. 
best  varieties,  143. 
cultivation,  142. 
how  to  plant,  142. 
kind  of  soil  needed,  141,  142. 
when  ready  for  harvest,  143. 


INDEX 


197 


Percheron,  a  prize,  illustration, 

lOI. 

Perennials.  87. 
Pigs,  illustration,  93. 
Phosphoric  acid,  27,  39. 
Plant  diseases,  79. 

foods,  experimental  study  of, 
27. 

foods,  kinds  of,  18. 

foods,  sources  of,  25. 

starvation,  26. 
Plants,      adapted      to      school 
grounds,  171. 

and  water,  18. 

classification  of,  11. 

experimental  study  of  water 
in,  20. 

germination,  11. 

where  to  secure,  171,  172. 

effect  of  too  much  food  on, 
26. 
Potash,  25,  27,  40. 

preparation  of,  27. 

source  of,  40. 
Poisons,   caution    in    using,    79, 

80. 
Potato  rot,  prevention  of,  140. 
Potatoes,  best  soil  for,  139. 

yield  of,  139,  140. 
Poultry,  care  of,  130,  132. 

foods  for,  130-132. 

laying  qualities  of,  132. 

house,  131. 

raising,  profit  in,  129. 
Prize  package,  illustration,  115. 
Protein,  100,  loi. 

foods  and  carbohydrates,  102. 

Ration,  balanced,  102. 
Root  crops,  plowing  for,  57. 

systems,    experimental    study 
of,  73. 

illustration,  72. 
Sand,  24. 

Scales,  use  of,   104. 
School  garden,  boys',  illustra- 
tion,   169. 

girls',  illustration,  174. 


School  gardening,  development 

of,*i73. 
School  ground,  illustration,  169. 

School    grounds,    arrangement 

of,  174,  175. 
Seeds,   experimental    study   of, 

13,  14. 
Sheep,  illustration,  139. 
Silage,  149,  150. 
Soda,  23. 
Soil,   effect  of   stirring,  .56. 

effect    of   commercial    fertil- 
izers  on,   41. 

how  water  rises  in,  58. 

lack  of  plant  food  in,  38. 

restoration  of  nitrogen  to,  49. 

worn-out,  26. 
Soil  tubes,  preparation  of,  37. 
Soils,     experimental    study  of, 
26. 

formation,  agencies  of,  33. 

how    made,    31. 

kinds  of,  ss- 

treatment  of,  33. 
Spores,    destruction    of,   80. 
Stock,  advantages  of  good,  92. 

effect  of  lack  of  care  on,  91. 

feeding,  90. 

general    attention    to.    91. 

kind  of  food  needed  varies, 
99. 

reasons   for   feeding,   90,   98. 

shelter  of,  91. 
Stock   judging,   188-193. 

beef  cattle,   188. 

dairy  cattle,   189. 

draft  horse,    190. 

mutton    sheep,    193. 

swine,    192. 
Sugar  beets,  137-138. 

illustration,   139. 

Tiling,  66. 
Tillage,  55-60. 

effect  of  on  roots,  55. 

effect  of  on  soil,  56. 

reasons  for,  60. 


198 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Tobacco,   a   heavy   feeder,   135, 
136. 
cultivation,   137. 
effect  of  on  soil,  69 
field,  illustration,  57. 
kind  of  soil  required,   137. 
Tomato  plant,   illustration,   57. 
Trees,  preparation  of  for  plant- 
ing,   170,  171. 
selection  of  for  planting,  170. 
where  procured  for  planting, 
171,  172. 
Tubercles,  45,  50,  51. 
illustration,  51. 

Water,   experimental  study  of, 
in  plants,  20. 


proportions  of  in  farm  crops, 
21. 

proportions  of  in  soil,  58. 

table  showing  proportions  of 
in  farm  crops,  21. 

underground,    63. 
Weeds,   classification,  87. 

nature  of,  86. 

work   of,   86. 
Weight  per  bu.  of  farm  prod- 
uce, 15. 
What  makes  plants  grow,  9. 
Why  plants  store  up  food,  11. 
Wood  lot,  care  of,  164. 

management  of,  165,  166. 

profit  in,  166. 
Worn-out  soil,  26. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


U^P''^^^^ 

1 

I 

1 

LD  2lA-50m-4,'59 
(A1724sl0)476B 

General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 

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